영문목차
Preface=vii
Abbreviations=xxxv
Acknowledgements=xxxix
Table of Cases=xliii
Table of Treaties, Instruments, and Legislation=cxviii
Table of Equivalences=cxxxix
PROLOGUE=1
1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION=3
1. Introduction=3
2. A Brief Overview of Analyses of Integration=5
3. The History and Ideas Behind European Integration=7
4. The EEC and Euratom Treaties=10
5. 1966-86:From the Luxembourg Accords to the Single European Act=13
(a) Crisis:The Luxembourg Accords=13
(b) Community Enlargement in the 1970s and 1980s=14
(c) Political Co-operation=14
(d) Developments in the Budgetary and Monetary Spheres=17
6. The Single European Act=19
7. The Birth of the European Union:The Maastricht Treaty=22
(a) Title I:The Common Provisions=23
(b) Titles II-IV:Changes to the Community Treaties=24
(c) The Two Intergovernmental Pillars=25
(i) Pillar 2, Title V:Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)=25
(ii) Pillar 3, Title VI:Justice and Home Affairs (JHA)=26
(d) Enlargement of the Community after the TEU=26
8. From Maastricht to Amsterdam=28
9. The Treaty of Amsterdam=29
(a) The Common Provisions=30
(b) The Community Pillar=30
(c) Pillar 2, Title V:The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)=35
(d) Pillar 3, Title VI:Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC)=39
(e) Title VII:Closer Co-operation=41
(f) Title VIII:Final Provisions=42
10. From Amsterdam to Nice=42
11. The Nice Treaty=44
(a) The Common Provisions=45
(b) Pillar 2:The CFSP=45
(c) Pillar 3:PJCC=46
(d) Title VII on Enhanced Co-operation=47
(e) The Community Pillar=48
12. Conclusion=51
13. Further Reading=52
2. THE INSTITUTIONS=54
1. Central Issues=54
2. The Commission=54
(a) The College of Commissioners:Appointment and Removal=54
(b) The College of Commissioners:Composition=55
(c) The College of Commissioners:Decision-making=56
(d) The Presidency of the Commission=57
(e) The Commission Bureaucracy=57
(f) The Powers of the Commission=59
(g) The Downfall of the Santer Commission and Subsequent Reforms=62
(h) The Role of the Commission:Conclusion=64
3. The Council=65
(a) Composition of the Council=65
(b) The Presidency of the Council=66
(c) The Committee of Permanent Representatives=67
(d) The Council Secretariat=68
(e) The Powers of the Council=68
(f) The Role of the Council:Conclusion=70
4. The European Council=71
(a) Composition=71
(b) Rationale=72
(c) Role=73
(d) The Role of the European Council:Conclusion=74
5. The European Parliament=75
(a) Composition and Functioning=76
(b) The Parliament's Decision-making Role=79
(c) The Parliament's Supervisory Role=82
(d) The Parliament as a Litigant=84
6. The European Court of Justice and the Court of First Instance=86
(a) Introduction=86
(b) Composition and Structure of the Court of Justice=87
(c) The Court of First Instance=90
(d) The Role of the Advocate General=93
(e) Procedure before the Court=94
(f) Style of the Court's Judgments=95
(g) Role and Methodology of the Court=96
7. The Court of Auditors=102
8. Other Community Institutions=104
(a) The Economic and Social Committee=104
(b) The Committee of the Regions=104
(c) Agencies=105
9. The Budgetary Procedure=107
10. Conclusion=108
11. Further Reading=109
3. THE SCOPE OF COMMUNITY POWERS:INSTRUMENTS, FORM, AND LEGAL BASIS=111
1. Introduction=111
2. Central Issues=111
3. Forms and Instruments of Community Lawmaking=112
(a) Regulations=112
(b) Directives=114
(c) Decisions=115
(d) Recommendations and Opinions=116
(e) Other Methods of Developing Policy=116
4. The Requirement to Give Reasons=117
5. Internal Community Competence=122
(a) Disagreement about the Ambit of a Treaty Article=122
(b) Shared Competence=122
(c) Implied Powers=123
(d) Article 308=125
6. External Community Competence=127
(a) Express External Competences=127
(b) Implied External Competences=129
(c) Exclusivity and its Limits=129
(d) Shared External Competence and Mixed Agreements=130
(e) The Procedural Basis for External Action=131
(f) The Legal Basis for External Action by the Union=131
7. The Principle of Subsidiarity=132
(a) The Community Must Act within the Limits of its Powers=132
(b) The Exclusive Competence of the Community=133
(c) The Subsidiarity Principle Itself=135
(d) The Role of the Court=136
8. Conclusion=138
9. Further Reading=138
4. COMMUNITY LEGISLATION AND POLICY-MAKING=139
1. Central Issues=139
2. The Legislative Process under the Community Pillar:Six Procedures=139
(a) Commission Acting Alone=140
(b) Council and Commission Acting Alone=140
(c) Council, Commission, and Consultation with Parliament=141
(d) Council, Commission, and the Co-operation Procedure with the European Parliament=141
(e) Council, Commission, and European Parliament:The Article 251 Procedure=144
(f) Council, Commission, and the European Parliament:Assent=147
(g) Legislative Initiative and the Council's Use of Article 208=148
(h) The Seeds of Legislative Initiative for the Parliament:Article 192=148
(i) Summary=149
3. The Community Pillar:Delegated Legislative Power=150
4. The Community Pillar:The Voting Requirements in the Council=153
(a) The Position Prior to 2005=153
(b) The Nice Treaty=155
5. The Decision-making Process under Pillars 2 and 3=156
(a) Pillar 2:Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)=156
(b) Pillar 3:Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC)=156
6. The Reality of Community Decision-making:The Temporal Dimension=157
7. The Reality of Community Decision-making:The Inter-institutional Dimension=159
(a) Institutional Co-operation:Planning the General Legislative Strategy=159
(b) Institutional Co-operation:Inter-institutional Agreements=161
(c) Inter-institutional Co-operation and Conflict-resolution:The Making of Particular Policies=162
8. Democracy within the Community=167
(a) The Nature of the Argument=168
(b) Evaluation of the Argument:The Empirical Frame of Reference=169
(c) Evaluation of the Argument:The Normative Frame of Reference=171
(d) The Convention and the Governance White Paper=173
9. Conclusion=175
10. Further Reading=176
5. THE NATURE AND EFFECT OF EC LAW=178
1. Central Issues=178
2. Introduction:The Ambiguous Concept of Direct Effect=178
3. The First Steps:The Direct Effect of Treaty Provisions=182
4. The Conditions for Direct Effect=185
5. The Legal Effects of Other Measures:Regulations and Decisions=189
6. The Legal Effects of International Agreements in EC Law=193
7. The Legal Effects of Directives=202
(a) Direct Effect and the Vertical/Horizontal Distinction=202
(b) Expanding Vertical Direct Effect:A Broad Concept of the State=208
(c) 'Indirect Effect':Development of the Principle of Interpretation=211
(d) 'Incidental' Horizontal Effects=220
(e) State Liability in Damages for Non-implementation of a Directive=227
8. Conclusion=227
9. Further Reading=228
6. THE APPLICATION OF EC LAW:REMEDIES IN NATIONAL COURTS=230
1. Central Issues=230
2. The Basic Principle of National Procedural Autonomy=231
(a) In the Absence of Relevant Community Rules=231
(b) No Creation of 'New' Remedies=232
3. The Requirements Imposed by Community Law=234
(a) The Basic Requirements of Proportionality, Adequacy, and Effectiveness of National Responses to a Breach of Community Law=234
(b) Early Tensions between the Principle of Effectiveness and the 'No New Remedies' Statement=237
(c) Development of the Requirement of Effectiveness=239
(i) A Strong Series of Rulings=239
(ii) Judicial Retreat=244
(iii) Regrouping after the Retreat?=247
(iv) Finding a Balance=249
(v) Can the Plaintiff's Conduct Affect the Right to an Effective Remedy?=252
(d) Development of the Principle of Equivalence=253
(e) Summary=256
4. The Principle of (State) Liability for Breach of EC Law=257
(a) The Origins of the Principle of State Liability=257
(b) Conditions for Liability under Francovich=259
(c) Brasserie du Pecheur/Factortame III:Clarifying the Basis of the Principle of State Liability=260
(d) Clarifying the Conditions for State Liability in Brasserie du Pecheur/Factortame III=263
(e) The Relationship Between the Community Principle of State Liability and the National Remedial Framework=268
(f) The Relationship Between Existing National Remedies and the Community Damages Remedy=270
5. Conclusion=272
6. Further Reading=273
7. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EC LAW AND NATIONAL LAW:SUPREMACY=275
1. Central Issues=275
2. The First Dimension:Supremacy of Community Law from the Court of Justice's Perspective=276
3. The Second Dimension:Supremacy of Community Law from the Perspective of the Member States=285
(a) France=285
(b) Germany=289
(c) Italy=298
(d) The United Kingdom=301
(e) Other Recent Developments=312
4. Conclusions=315
5. Further Reading=315
8. GENERAL PRINCIPLES I:FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS=317
1. Central Issues=317
2. The Background=318
3. Fundamental Rights and General Principles as Standards Binding on the Community=319
(a) The Court's Initial Resistance=319
(b) A More Receptive Approach=320
(c) Fundamental Rights as Grounds for Annulment of Community Laws=321
4. The Sources of Fundamental Rights Derived by the Court=323
5. The Standard of Protection for EU Fundamental Rights=327
(a) Deriving Rights from the 'Sources of Inspiration'=327
(b) Adjudicating Rights Claims=330
(i) Different Degrees of Protection for Different Rights=330
(ii) Exceptions and Limitations on the Scope of Rights=330
(iii) Challenging Administrative Acts for Violation of Fundamental Rights=332
Staff Cases=332
Competition Proceedings=333
(c) Summary=337
6. Do the General Principles of Community Law Bind the Member States?=337
(a) Member States Applying Provisions of Community Law which are Based on Protection for Human Rights=338
(b) Member States as Agents of Community Law:Enforcing EC Policies and Interpreting EC Rules=339
(c) Member States Derogating from Community Law Requirements=341
(d) Limits to the 'Scope of Community Law' and to the Domestic Applicability of Community Fundamental Rights?=345
7. Fundamental Rights and the Role of the Political Institutions=349
(a) Political Approval of the ECJ's Developments=349
(b) Fundamental Rights as a Source of Policy Competence?=351
(i) Opinion 2/94 and the Limits to the EC's 'Human Rights' Powers=351
(ii) External and Internal Competence=354
(iii) Anti-discrimination Law=355
(iv) A Cautious Approach=357
8. The Charter of Fundamental Rights=358
(a) Background=358
(b) Content=359
(c) The 'Horizontal Clauses'=360
(d) Current Status=362
9. Some Questions on the Future of Human Rights in EU Law=363
10. Conclusions=369
11. Further Reading=369
9. GENERAL PRINCIPLES II:PROPORTIONALITY, LEGITIMATE EXPECTATIONS, NON-DISCRIMINATION, AND TRANSPARENCY=371
1. Central Issues=371
2. Proportionality=371
(a) Proportionality:Meaning=371
(b) Proportionality and Challenges to Community Action=374
(c) Proportionality and Challenges to Member State Action=377
3. Legal Certainty and Legitimate Expectations=380
(a) Legal Certainty and Actual Retroactivity=380
(b) Legal Certainty, Legitimate Expectations, and Apparent Retroactivity=382
(c) Legal Certainty, Legitimate Expectations, and Revocation of Unlawful Acts=386
4. Non-discrimination=387
(a) Non-discrimination as a 'General' Principle of EC Law=387
(b) Non-discrimination as a Community Goal and a Basis for Community Action=389
(c) Justifying Discrimination=390
5. Transparency=392
(a) Treaty Provisions=392
(b) Background=392
(c) The Case Law=393
(d) Legislative Development=394
(e) The Ombudsman=395
6. Conclusions=395
7. Further Reading=396
10. ENFORCEMENT ACTIONS AGAINST MEMBER STATES=397
1. Central Issues=397
2. The Function and Operation of the Infringement Procedure=398
(a) Function of the Procedure=398
(b) Operation of the Procedure=400
(c) Sharpening the Enforcement Procedure:The Pecuniary Penalty=402
3. The Relationship between the 'Public' and the 'Private' Enforcement Mechanisms=404
4. The Commission's Discretion 407
5. The Reasoned Opinion=412
(a) Challenging the Reasoned Opinion=412
(b) Can the Commission Change the Subject Matter of its Action after it has Issued a Reasoned Opinion?=414
(c) Confidentiality of the Reasoned Opinion=415
6. Why is an Enforcement Action Admissible after the Breach is Remedied?=416
(a) The Commission's Continued Interest in Bringing the Action=417
(b) The Need to Rule on the Legality of Short Breaches=417
(c) Establishing the Liability of a Defaulting Member State=418
7. Types of Breach by Member States of Community Law=418
(a) Breach of the Obligation of Co-operation under Article 10 (ex Article 5) EC=419
(b) Inadequate Implementation of Community Law=420
(c) Failure to Give Proper Effect to Community Law=423
(d) Action by the Courts of a Member State=424
8. State Defences in Enforcement Proceedings=424
(a) Force Majeure=425
(b) There Was no Inertia or Opposition to the Application of EC Law=426
(c) The Community Measure on which the Infringement Proceedings are Based is Illegal=427
(d) Other Member States are also in Breach=428
9. Article 227 (ex Article 170)=428
10. Interim Measures=429
11. Conclusions=430
12. Further Reading=431
11. PRELIMINARY RULINGS AND THE BUILDING OF A EUROPEAN JUDICIAL SYSTEM=432
1. Introduction=432
2. Central Issues=433
3. Three Types of Preliminary-ruling Procedure=433
4. The Provisions which can be Referred=434
5. The Courts or Tribunals to which Article 234 Applies=436
6. The Existence of a Question:The Development of Precedent=439
7. The Existence of a Question:The 'Acte Clair' Doctrine=445
(a) CILFIT as Part of a Discourse with, and Constraint on, National Courts=447
(b) CILFIT as a Flexible Tool which can be Manipulated by National Courts=448
(c) The Extension of CILFIT=449
8. The Existence of a Question:The Development of a More Hierarchical Judicial System=449
(a) Precedent:National Courts as Community Courts=449
(b) Acte Clair:National Courts as Delegates of the ECJ=451
(c) Sectoral Delegation:Systematic Delegation to National Courts=452
(d) Summary=452
9. The Decision to Refer:The National Court's Perspective=453
10. The Reference to the ECJ:The Initial Approach, Come One, Come All=457
(a) The Correction of Improperly Framed References=458
(b) Challenging the Reasons for Making a Reference or the Facts on which it is Based=459
11. The Reference to the ECJ:The Foundations of the Court's Authority over the Cases Referred to It=461
12. The Reference to the ECJ:Developing Control over the Article 234 Procedure=466
(a) The Types of Case where the ECJ will Decline Jurisdiction=466
(b) The Limits of the ECJ's Power to Decline to Take Cases=470
(c) Summary=471
13. The Reference to the ECJ:Interpretation versus Application=472
14. Reform of the Preliminary-ruling Procedure=473
(a) Limitation of the National Courts Empowered to Make a Reference=474
(b) A Filtering Mechanism based on the Novelty, Complexity, or Importance of the Question=475
(c) The National Court Proposes an Answer to the Question=475
(d) Towards an Appellate System=476
(e) The Creation of Decentralized Judicial Bodies=477
(f) Conferment on the CFI of Jurisdiction to Give Preliminary Rulings:The Option Chosen at Nice=478
15. Conclusion=479
16. Further Reading=480
12. REVIEW OF LEGALITY=482
1. Introduction=482
2. Central Issues=483
3. The Range of Reviewable Acts=483
4. Article 230:Standing for Privileged Applicants=486
5. Article 230(4):A Critical Analysis of the General Standing Rules for Non-privileged Applicants=487
(a) Challenges to Decisions Addressed to Another Person=488
(b) Challenges to Regulations:The Traditional Approach=493
(c) Challenges to Regulations and Decisions:The More Modern Jurisprudence, The Significance of Codorniu=495
(d) Challenges to Regulations and Decisions:The Modern Jurisprudence Post-Codorniu=496
(e) A Ray of Hope:A Test of Substantial Adverse Effect=500
(f) Summary of the Case Law=502
6. Article 230:For Non-privileged Applicants in Particular Areas=503
(a) Anti-dumping Cases=503
(b) Competition Cases=506
(c) State Aids=507
(d) Reinforcing the Democratic Nature of the Community=509
7. Article 230:The Policy Arguments Concerning Standing of Non-privileged Applicants=510
(a) The Appellate Court Argument=510
(b) Restrictive Access and the Language of the Treaty=512
(c) The Nature of the Subject Matter:Discretionary Determinations and the CAP=513
(d) The Nature of the' Subject Matter:Quasi-judicial Determinations and the More Liberal Case Law=514
(e) Two Central Issues Concerning Standing (I):The Meaning to be Given to Individual Concern=515
(f) Two Central Issues Concerning Standing (II):Standing, Participation, and Intervention=516
8. Article 230:Direct Concern=518
9. Article 232:Failure to Act=520
(a) The Range of Reviewable Omissions=520
(b) The Procedure=522
(c) Standing=522
10. Article 241:The Plea of Illegality=524
(a) The Range of Acts which Can be Challenged=524
(b) The Forum in which Article 241 Can be Used=526
(c) The Types of Proceedings in which Article 241 Can be Raised=527
(d) The Parties who are Allowed to Use Article 241=527
11. Article 234:Preliminary Rulings as a Mechanism for Contesting the Legality of Community Measures=528
(a) The Rationale for Using Article 234=528
(b) The Mechanism for Testing Community Legality via the National Courts=529
(c) The Acts which Can be Challenged under Article 234=529
(d) The Limitations and Drawbacks of Indirect Challenge=531
(e) Summary=532
12. The Grounds of Review=532
(a) Lack of Competence=533
(b) Infringement of an Essential Procedural Requirement=533
(c) Infringement of the Treaty or of any Rule of Law Relating to its Application=534
(d) Misuse of Powers=536
(e) The Intensity of Review=537
13. The Consequences of Illegality and Invalidity=540
14. Conclusion=544
15. Further Reading=544
13. DAMAGES ACTIONS AND MONEY CLAIMS=547
1. Introduction=547
2. Central Issues=547
3. Liability for Legislative and Non-legislative Discretionary Acts=547
(a) The General Test=547
(b) Legislative and Non-legislative Discretionary Acts=549
(c) The Meaning of Superior Rule of Law=549
(d) The Meaning of Flagrant Violation/Serious Breach:The Early Case Law=552
(e) The Meaning of Flagrant Violation/Serious Breach:More Recent Developments=555
(f) The Present Law:Summary=557
(g) The Present Law:An Assessment=557
4. Liability for Non-discretionary Acts=558
(a) The General Principle:Illegality, Causation, Damage=558
(b) Qualifications to the General Principle=559
(c) Present Law:A Summary=563
5. Liability for Official Acts of Community Servants=563
6. Liability for Valid Legislative Acts=565
(a) The Nature of the Problem=565
(b) The Case Law=567
7. Causation and Damage=568
(a) Causation=568
(b) Damage=570
8. Joint Liability of the Community and Member States=571
(a) Procedural Issues=571
(b) Substantive Issues=572
9. Liability in Contract=576
10. Liability to Make Restitution=577
11. Conclusion=578
12. Further Reading=578
14. FREE MOVEMENT OF GOODS:DUTIES, CHARGES, AND TAXES=580
1. Introduction:Forms of Economic Integration=580
2. The Structure of the Provisions Concerning Free Movement of Goods=582
3. Central Issues=583
4. Articles 23-25:Duties and Charges=583
(a) Duties and Charges:Effect, Not Purpose=584
(b) Charges Having an Equivalent Effect:General Principles=586
(c) Charges Having an Equivalent Effect:Inspections and the 'Exchange Exception'=587
(d) Charges Having an Equivalent Effect:Inspections and Fulfilment of Mandatory Legal Requirements=590
(e) Recovery of Unlawful Charges=592
(f) The Customs Union:The Broader Perspective=592
5. Articles 90-93:Discriminatory Tax Provisions=593
(a) The Purpose of Article 90=593
(b) Article 90(1):Direct Discrimination=593
(c) Article 90(1):Indirect Discrimination=594
(d) Article 90:National Autonomy and Fiscal Choices=596
(e) The Relationship between Article 90(1) and 90(2)=598
(f) Article 90(1) and (2):The Determination of Similarity=600
(g) Article 90(2):The Determination of Protective Effect=602
(h) Taxation:The Broader Perspective=606
6. The Boundary between Articles 23-25 and 90-93=607
7. Conclusion=611
8. Further Reading=612
15. FREE MOVEMENT OF GOODS:QUANTITATIVE RESTRICTIONS=613
1. Introduction=613
2. Central Issues=613
3. Directive 70/50 and Dassonville=615
4. Discriminatory Barriers to Trade=617
(a) Import and Export Restrictions=618
(b) Promotion or Favouring of Domestic Products=618
(c) Price-fixing=623
(d) Measures which Make Imports more Difficult or Costly=624
(e) National Measures versus Private Action=625
(f) Summary=625
5. Justifying Discriminatory Barriers to Trade:Article 30=626
(a) Public Morality=626
(b) Public Policy=628
(c) Public Security=630
(d) Protection of Health and Life of Humans, Animals, or Plants=631
(e) Other Grounds for Validating Discriminatory Measures?=634
(f) The Relationship between Harmonization and Article 30=635
6. Indistinctly Applicable Rules:Cassis de Dijon=636
7. Indistinctly Applicable Rules:The Post-Cassis Jurisprudence=639
8. Indistinctly Applicable Rules and Article 29=640
9. Indistinctly Applicable Rules:The Limits of Article 28=641
(a) The Nature of the Problem:Cineacutethegraveque and Torfaen=641
(b) Academic Opinion prior to Keck=646
(c) The Judgment in Keck=647
(d) Keck:Static and Dynamic Selling Arrangements=648
(e) Keck and Selling Arrangements:Two Judicial Qualifications=650
(f) Judicial and Academic Opinion Concerning Keck:Equality and Market Access=653
(g) Keck, Article 28, and Market Access:Meaning and Application=656
(h) Summary and Choices=657
10. Indistinctly Applicable Rules:The Mandatory Requirements=659
(a) The Rationale for the Mandatory Requirements=659
(b) The Relationship between the Mandatory Requirements and Article 30:The Cases=659
(c) The Relationship between the Mandatory Requirements and Article 30:Principles=661
(d) The Mandatory Requirements:Consumer Protection=661
(e) The Mandatory Requirements:Fairness of Commercial Transactions=664
(f) The Mandatory Requirements:Public Health=664
(g) Other Mandatory Requirements=666
(h) The Relationship between the Mandatory Requirements and Harmonization=668
(i) Summary=668
11. Broader Perspectives on Cassis=668
(a) The Advantages of the ECI's Jurisprudence and the Commission's Response to Cassis=668
(b) Problems with the Realization of the ECJ's and Commission's Strategy=671
(c) Problems Flowing from the ECJ's and Commission's Strategy=672
12. Conclusion=676
13. Further Reading=677
16. FREE MOVEMENT OF CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC AND MONETARY UNION=680
1. Central Issues=680
2. Free Movement of Capital=680
(a) The Original Treaty Provisions=680
(b) The Current Provisions:The Basic Principle=681
(c) The Current Provisions:The Exceptions=682
3. Early Attempts at EMU and the European Monetary System=685
4. Economic and Monetary Union:The Three Stages=686
(a) Stage One and the Delors Report=686
(b) Stage Two:The Treaty on European Union=687
(c) Stage Three:The Basic Legal Framework=688
(d) The Legal Consequences of Moving to Stage Three=689
5. Understanding EMU:The Economic Foundations=691
(a) The Case for EMU=691
(b) The Case against EMU=693
(c) EMU:Economics, Politics, and Law=694
6. Understanding EMU:Central Bank Independence=695
7. The Transition to EMU:The Real World=697
8. Conclusion=698
9. Further Reading=699
17. FREE MOVEMENT OF WORKERS AND BEYOND=701
1. Central Issues=701
2. The Direct Effect of Article 39=702
3. Who is Protected by Article 39?=704
(a) Definition of 'Worker':A Community Concept=705
(b) Definition of 'Worker':Economic and Social Aspects=706
(c) Definition of 'Worker':The Residual Relevance of the Purpose of Employment?=711
(d) Definition of 'Worker':Those Seeking Work=713
4. Discrimination, Market Access, and Justification=715
(a) Direct Discrimination=715
(b) Indirect Discrimination=715
(c) Access to the Employment Market=718
(d) Internal Situations=720
(e) Objective Justification=720
5. The Public-service Exception=722
(a) The Meaning of Public Service is to be Determined by the ECJ, not the Member States=722
(b) The ECJ's Test for Public Service=723
(c) Application of the ECJ's Test=724
(d) Discriminatory Conditions of Employment within the Public Service are Prohibited=728
6. Formal Requirements:Directive 68/360=728
(a) Formal Requirements for Workers=728
(b) Formal Requirements for Those who Search for Work=732
7. Substantive Rights and Social Advantages:Regulation 1612/68=734
(a) Regulation 1612/68=734
(b) Article 7(2) of Regulation 1612/68=736
(c) Rights of Families as Parasitic on the Workers' Rights=739
(d) Family Members in an 'Internal Situation'=742
8. Education=744
(a) Children (and Family Members) of Workers=744
(b) Workers=745
(c) Students=746
9. Amsterdam, Borders, and Third-country Nationals=750
(a) From the SEA to the ToA=750
(b) The ToA=752
10. Citizenship=755
(a) The Introduction of Citizenship Provisions=755
(b) Rights of Movement and Residence=755
(c) Political Rights=759
(d) Citizenship:Concerns and Potential=760
(e) Citizenship and the New Legislation on Free Movement=761
11. Conclusion=762
12. Further Reading=763
18. FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT AND TO PROVIDE SERVICES=765
1. Central Issues=765
2. Persons, Services, and Establishment:Differences and Commonalities=766
(a) The Three Chapters=766
(b) Secondary Legislation Governing Entry and Residence=768
(c) The 'Official Authority' Exception=769
(d) Are the Freedoms Horizontally Applicable?=771
3. The Right of Establishment=772
(a) The Effect of Article 43 (ex Article 52)=773
(b) Legislative Harmonization and Mutual Recognition of Qualifications=777
(c) The Scope of Article 43 (ex Article 52)=783
(i) Does It Cover Only Discriminatory Restrictions?=783
(ii) The 'Reverse Discrimination' Question:Can Nationals Rely on Article 43 (ex Article 52) in their own Member State?=787
(iii) Are Restrictions on Social Benefits Contrary to Article 43 (ex Article 52)?=791
(d) Establishment of Companies=793
(e) Summary=799
4. Free Movement of Services=800
(a) The Effect of Article 49 (ex Article 59)=802
(b) The Scope of Article 49 (ex Article 59)=804
(i) The Need for an Inter-State Element=804
(ii) The Freedom to Receive Services=805
(iii) The Economic Nature of the Services:Remuneration=806
(iv) Can Illegal Activities Constitute Services within Articles 49-50 (ex Articles 59-60)?=811
(v) Are Restrictions on Social Benefits Contrary to Article 49 (ex Article 59)?=812
(c) Justifying Restrictions on the Free Movement of Services=814
(d) Are Non-discriminatory Restrictions Covered by Article 49 (ex Article 59)?=819
5. Conclusions=823
6. Further Reading=823
19. THE PUBLIC POLICY, SECURITY, AND HEALTH DEROGATIONS:DIRECTIVE 64/221=825
1. Central Issues=825
2. The Nature of the Derogations=826
3. The Discretion of the Member States=827
(a) What Conduct Can Justify the Invocation of the Derogations?=827
(b) What Steps May Member States Take Against Non-nationals?=829
(c) The 'Personal Conduct' Requirement=832
(d) The Procedural Protections under Directive 64/221=835
4. The Proposed Legislation=840
5. Conclusions=841
6. Further Reading=841
20. EQUAL TREATMENT OF WOMEN AND MEN=842
1. Central Issues=842
2. The Legal Framework=843
3. Equal Pay=845
(a) Directive 75/117=848
(b) 'Indirect' Discrimination in Pay and Objective Justification=852
(i) Indirect Discrimination=852
(ii) Objective Justification=862
(iii) Can 'Direct' Pay Discrimination be Justified?=864
(c) The Breadth of Article 141 (ex Article 119):What Can Constitute 'Pay'?=865
(i) 'Social Security Benefits' are not Pay=865
(ii) A Widening Definition of Pay=866
(iii) Bilka and Barber:Many Occupational Pensions Constitute Pay=869
(iv) Limiting Barber=873
(v) The Post-Barber Case Law=876
(vi) Other Kinds of Pension=878
(vii) A Limited Retreat=879
(viii) Redressing Discrimination in Occupational Pensions=881
4. Equal Treatment=885
(a) Equal Treatment as a General Principle=885
(b) Directive 76/207=886
(i) The Occupational Qualification Exception=886
(ii) The Maternity-protection Exception=888
(iii) The Positive-action Provision=888
(iv) Other Exceptions=894
(v) The Proposal to Amend Directive 76/207=895
(c) The Distinction between Conditions of Work, Pay, and Social Security=895
(d) Equal Treatment and Pregnancy=899
(e) The Pregnancy Directive=907
(f) Directive 86/613=909
(g) Parental Leave=910
(h) Sexual Harassment=911
5. Social Security=912
(a) Directive 79/7=912
(i) Direct Effect of Directive 79/7=913
(ii) Personal Scope=915
(iii) Material Scope=918
(iv) The Exceptions in Article 7=922
(v) Indirect Discrimination in Social Security=925
(b) Directive 86/378 as Amended by Directive 96/97=929
6. Remedies=930
7. Conclusions=933
8. Further Reading=934
21. COMPETITION LAW:ARTICLE 81=936
1. Central Issues=936
2. Objectives of Competition Law=936
3. Article 81=938
4. Undertakings=939
5. Agreements, Decisions, and Concerted Practices=940
(a) Agreements=940
(b) Concerted Practices=943
6. The Object or Effect of Preventing, Restricting, or Distorting Competition=950
(a) The Nature of the Problem=950
(b) The Experience in the United States=951
(c) The Academic Debate in the EC=952
(d) The Case Law in the EC=954
(e) Summary:Economic Analysis within Article 81(1)=961
7. The Effect on Trade between Member States=962
8. The De Minimis Doctrine=963
9. Exemption under Article 81(3)=964
(a) Individual Exemption=964
(b) Block Exemption=968
10. Conclusion=968
11. Further Reading=969
22. COMPETITION LAW:VERTICAL RESTRAINTS=971
1. Central Issues=971
2. The Economic Debate=971
(a) The First View of Vertical Restraints=972
(b) The Second View of Vertical Restraints=974
3. The Critique of the Commission=975
4. Exclusive Distribution=977
5. Selective Distribution=978
6. Franchising=984
7. Exclusive Purchasing=985
8. The Block Exemption=986
(a) The New-style Block Exemption=986
(b) Article 1:Definitions=987
(c) Article 2:The Core of the Block Exemption=987
(d) Article 3:The Market Share Cap=988
(e) Article 4:The Black List=988
(f) Article 5:Obligations that do not Benefit from the Exemption=989
(g) Articles 6-8:Withdrawing the Benefit of the Regulation=989
9. Conclusion=990
10. Further Reading=990
23. COMPETITION LAW:ARTICLE 82=992
1. Introduction=992
2. Central Issues=992
3. Dominant Position:The Product Market=993
4. Dominant Position:The Geographic Market and the Temporal Factor=998
5. Dominant Position:The Commission Notice on Market Definition=1000
6. Dominant Position:Market Power=1001
7. Abuse:General Principles=1006
(a) General Issues of Interpretation=1006
(b) Exploitation and Anti-competitive Practices=1007
8. Abuse:Particular Examples=1008
(a) Abuse and Mergers=1008
(b) Abuse and Refusal to Supply=1010
(c) Abuse and Price Discrimination=1017
(d) Abuse and Predatory Pricing=1023
(e) Abuse and Selective Pricing=1025
9. Joint Dominance=1026
10. Objective Justification and Proportionality=1030
11. Conclusion=1030
12. Further Reading=1031
24. COMPETITION LAW:MERGERS=1034
1. Introduction=1034
2. Central Issues=1035
3. The Policy Reasons for Merger Control=1035
(a) Arguments Against Mergers=1035
(b) Arguments in Favour of Mergers=1036
4. Regulation 4064/89 as Amended:Procedural Issues=1037
5. Regulation 4064/89 as Amended:Substantive Issues=1039
(a) Concentration:General=1039
(b) Concentration:Joint Ventures=1040
(c) Concentrations which have a 'Community Dimension'=1044
(d) Concentrations:The Substantive Criteria=1045
(e) Collective Dominance=1051
(f) Modifications to Concentrations=1054
(g) Concentrations:Reflections on the Substantive Criteria=1054
6. Relationship between Community and Member State Merger Control=1056
(a) The General Principle:One-stop Merger Control=1056
(b) Article 21(3)=1056
(c) Referral to the Competent Authorities of the Member State:The German Clause=1057
(d) Article 22(3):The Dutch Clause=1057
(e) The Residual Role of Articles 81 and 82=1058
7. Judicial Review=1058
8. Conclusion=1059
9. Further Reading=1060
25. COMPETITION:ENFORCEMENT AND PROCEDURE=1062
1. Central Issues=1062
2. The White Paper on Modernization=1062
3. Public Enforcement by the Commission:Finding the Violation=1064
(a) Investigation/Inspection=1064
(b) Notification=1067
(c) Complaints=1068
4. Public 'Enforcement by the Commission:Competition Decisions=1071
(a) Informal Settlement=1071
(b) Formal Decisions:Interim Orders=1072
(c) Formal Decisions:Negative Clearance=1072
(d) Formal Decisions:A Finding of Infringement=1073
(e) Formal Decisions:A Finding of Inapplicability=1077
(f) Formal Decisions:Exemptions=1077
(g) Judicial Review by the CFI=1077
5. Public Enforcement:National Competition Authorities=1079
6. Private Enforcement:The Role of the National Courts prior to the Modernization Reforms=1080
(a) The Advantages and Disadvantages of Enforcement through National Courts=1080
(b) Article 81:Enforcement of Agreements=1081
(c) National Courts and Comfort Letters=1082
7. Private Enforcement:The Role of National Courts under the Modernization Reforms=1083
8. Damages Actions and Recovery of Benefits=1083
9. Conclusion=1085
10. Further Reading=1086
26. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY=1088
1. Central Issues:Property Rights versus the Single Market=1088
2. Articles 28-30:The Exhaustion of Rights Doctrine=1089
(a) Patents=1089
(b) Trade Marks=1093
(c) Copyright=1097
3. The Limits of Articles 28-30:The Demise of the Common Origin Doctrine and the Limits of Consent=1103
4. Articles 81 and 82=1108
(a) General Principles:The Existence/Exercise Distinction=1108
(b) Article 81:Assignments=1109
(c) Article 81:Licensing=1111
(d) Article 81:Block Exemptions=1115
(e) Article 82=1116
5. Article 12 and Non-discrimination=1118
6. Intellectual-Property Rights and Harmonization=1119
7. Conclusion=1120
8. Further Reading=1121
27. THE STATE AND THE COMMON MARKET=1122
1. Central Issues=1122
2. The State and Participation in the Market:General Principles=1122
3. Public Undertakings and Article 86=1123
(a) The Scope of Article 86(1):General Principles=1124
(b) The Scope of Article 86(1):Agnosticism as to the Organization of Economic Activities?=1126
(c) The Scope of Article 86(2):The First Step=1131
(d) The Scope of Article 86(2):The Second and Third Steps=1132
(e) The Scope of Article 86(3)=1134
(f) Article 86 and National Courts=1135
(g) Summary=1136
4. The State, Articles 10, 81, 82, and 28=1136
5. State Aids:The Substantive Rules, and Article 87=1138
(a) The Commission and the Development of Policy=1138
(b) Article 87(1)=1141
(c) Article 87(2)=1146
(d) Article 87(3):Particular Categories=1147
6. State Aids:The Procedural Rules and Articles 88 and 89=1153
(a) Review of Existing State Aids=1153
(b) The Procedure for New State Aids:Notification and Preliminary Review=1154
(c) The Procedure for State Aids:Detailed Investigation and Enforcement=1155
(d) Exceptional Circumstances:Article 88(2), Paragraphs 3 and 4=1157
(e) Article 89 (ex Article 94):Implementing Regulations=1157
(f) Challenge to Commission Decisions=1157
7. State Aids:Aid that Has Not been Notified=1159
8. State Aids:Recovery of Unlawful Aid=1160
9. The Relationship of State Aids to Other Provisions of the Treaty=1163
10. State Aids, Market Integration, and Regional Policy=1164
11. Article 16 and Services of General Economic Interest=1166
12. Conclusion=1167
13. Further Reading=1168
28. COMPLETION OF THE SINGLE MARKET=1170
1. Central Issues=1170
2. The Limits of Integration prior to 1986=1170
3. The Commission's Paper and the Benefits of a Single Market=1172
4. The Reinvigoration of Europe:The Politics of Integration=1176
5. Completing the Internal Market:Legislative Reform and the SEA=1179
(a) Article 14:The Obligation Stated=1180
(b) Article 15:The Obligation Qualified=1183
(c) Article 95(1):Facilitating the Passage of Harmonization Measures=1184
(d) Article 95(2)-(10):Qualifications to Article 95(1)=1186
6. Completing the Internal Market:The New Approach to Harmonization=1189
(a) The Rationale for the New Approach=1189
(b) The New Approach to Harmonization=1190
(c) The New Approach to Harmonization:Legislative Format=1192
7. Completing the Internal Market:Tensions and Concerns=1195
(a) Consumer Interests and Commercial Power=1195
(b) The Single Market, Market Freedom, and Structural Balance=1197
(c) Politics, Economics, and the Single Market Enterprise=1198
8. The Reconceptualization of the Internal Market=1200
9. Conclusion=1202
10. Further Reading=1203