영문목차
Executive summary=11
Chapter 1. Cross-border education:an overview=17
1.1. What is cross-border education?=19
1.2. The growth of cross-border education=20
1.2.1. International student mobility=20
1.2.2. Programme and institution mobility=21
1.3. The new face of cross-border education provision=23
1.4. Plurality of drivers and rationales=25
1.4.1. Policy rationales=25
1.4.2. Institutional rationales=28
1.4.3. Student rationales=29
1.5. Trade as a new viewpoint on cross-border education=31
1.5.1. An international market of more than USD 30 billion=31
1.5.2. Cross-border education and the General Agreement on Trade in Services(GATS)=33
Notes=37
References=38
Chapter 2. Cross-border post-secondary education in North America=39
2.1. Historical overview-framing factors=41
2.1.1. Post-secondary education system=41
2.1.2. Evolution of internationalisation and cross-border education=44
2.1.3. Regional analysis=48
2.2. Key developments=49
2.2.1. Major cross-border activities and developments=50
2.2.2. Regional analysis=67
2.3. Rationales, policy and national actors=69
2.3.1. Rationales and policies=70
2.3.2. Government departments and agencies=74
2.3.3. Non-governmental organisations=77
2.3.4. Regional analysis=80
2.4. Trends, issues, challenges=81
2.4.1. Limited regional focus and activities=82
2.4.2. Student mobility=82
2.4.3. The potential of ICT=83
2.4.4. Quality assurance=83
2.4.5. The growth of the for-profit sector=83
2.4.6. Rationales=84
2.4.7. Brain-drain=84
References=85
Chapter 3. Cross-border post-secondary education in Europe=87
3.1. Historical overview=89
3.1.1. The post-World War Ⅱ period:closed national systems=89
3.1.2. The 1980s-1990s:European co-operation programmes=91
3.1.3. The end of the millennium:the Sorbonne and Bologna declarations=94
3.1.4. The turn of the millennium:the Lisbon Summit=97
3.2. Policies and rationales=99
3.2.1. Shifting rationales=99
3.2.2. The growing economic orientation=99
3.2.3. The pressure from Anglo-Saxon countries=102
3.2.4. Competition and co-operation=102
3.2.5. Market liberalisation:EU and CATS=104
3.2.6. International competition and intergovernmental co-operation=104
3.3. Policy instruments=105
3.3.1. The free mobility of students and professionals=105
3.3.2. Recognition of professional qualifications=106
3.3.3. The free movement of services=107
3.3.4. Quality assurance=108
3.3.5. ERASMUS Mundus=110
3.3.6. Other instruments:international marketing=111
3.4. Key developments in activities=114
3.4.1. The size and growth of cross-border education in Europe=114
3.4.2. The importance of adult and vocational education=126
3.5. Nature of actors and partnerships=127
3.5.1. The nature of actors=127
3.5.2. The nature of partnerships=127
3.6. Opportunities, challenges, issues=129
Notes=131
References=132
Chapter 4. Cross-border post-secondary education in the Asia-Pacific region=137
4.1. Historical and geographical overview=138
4.1.1. Introduction=138
4.1.2. The Asia-Pacific region=139
4.1.3. Educational and technological capacity=142
4.1.4. Educational typology of the Asia-Pacific nations=146
4.1.5. The Asia-Pacific region in global context=148
4.2. Policies and rationales=155
4.2.1. Student demand for cross-border education=156
4.2.2. Government policies and strategies=157
4.2.3. Educational institutions=159
4.2.4. Global rationales=160
4.3. Policy instruments=161
4.3.1. Meeting capacity-building objectives=161
4.3.2. Building national capacity=162
4.3.3. National capacity and foreign providers=164
4.3.4. Brain drain, brain gain and brain exchange=165
4.3.5. Cross-border research collaboration and higher education capacity building=165
4.3.6. Meeting academic, political, cultural and socio-economic objectives=166
4.3.7. Meeting trade objectives=168
4.4. Key developments=170
4.4.1. Student exchange=170
4.4.2. Consumption abroad:foreign students=172
4.4.3. Programme and institution mobility(PIM)=178
4.4.4. Distance education/online PIM=182
4.4.5. Regulation of cross-border education=189
4.5. Actors and partnerships=193
4.5.1. Actors=193
4.5.2. Partnerships=193
4.6. Opportunities and challenges=196
4.6.1. Opportunities=196
4.6.2. Challenges=197
Notes=198
References=200
Chapter 5. Key developments and policy rationales in cross-border post-secondary education=205
5.1. Key developments in cross-border educational activities=206
5.1.1. Student mobility:patterns and growth=206
5.1.2. Programme and institution mobility=215
5.2. Rationales, actors and policy instruments=220
5.2.1. The mutual understanding approach to cross-border education=221
5.2.2. The skilled migration approach to cross-border education=223
5.2.3. The revenue-generating approach to cross-border education=225
5.2.4. The capacity building approach to cross-border education=229
5.3. Conclusion=231
Notes=233
References=234
Chapter 6. Implications of recent developments for access and equity, cost and funding, quality and capacity building=237
6.1. Access and equity=239
6.1.1. Expanding access to post-secondary education through cross-border provision=239
6.1.2. Equity in participation to cross-border student mobility=241
6.1.3. Does cross-border student mobility restrict domestic access to tertiary education?=246
6.2. Cross-border post-secondary education:financing and cost effects=249
6.2.1. Who finances student cross-border mobility?=250
6.2.2. Indirect subsidies to cross-border post-secondary education=251
6.2.3. Generating income for universities through cross-border post secondary education:a mental revolution=253
6.2.4. New forms of cross-border post-secondary education:funding and cost=257
6.3. The GATS negotiations and its possible impact on public funding and subsidies=258
6.3.1. Privatisation, liberalisation, regulation and the GATS=259
6.3.2. Public funding and subsidies under the GATS=262
6.4. Cross-border post-secondary education and quality of education=264
6.4.1. Quality as a common concern in sending and receiving countries=265
6.4.2. Quality issues in cross-border post-secondary education=266
6.4.3. Does cross-border post-secondary education affect the quality of domestic post-secondary education?=269
6.4.4. Quality assurance, recognition of qualifications and trade agreements=272
6.4.5. The need for transparent information and international initiatives in quality assurance=274
6.5. Building capacity for post-secondary education through cross-border post-secondary education:development issues=276
6.5.1. Cross-border mobility of students and skilled labour migration:brain exchange, brain drain, brain gain=276
6.5.2. Cross-border post-secondary education:a possible solution to brain drain and a catalyst for capacity building=281
6.5.3. Trade and aid:post-secondary education capacity building=284
6.6. Summary and policy challenges=287
6.6.1. Access and equity=287
6.6.2. Financing and cost=288
6.6.3. Quality and recognition=289
6.6.4. Using cross-border post-secondary education to build capacity=290
6.6.5. Impact of the CATS on public funding and quality regulation=291
6.6.6. Policy coherence=292
Notes=292
References=294
Annex A. A basic guide to the General Agreement on Trade in Services(GATS)=297
Annex B. Negotiating proposals, requests and offers under GATS:what has happened on education services?(May 2004)=304
Annex C. Definitions and technical notes on the data=308
Data tables=312
1.1. Types of cross-border education activities=20
1.2. Level of tuition fees in public universities for international students compared to domestic students=26
1.3. Export earnings from foreign students, 1989, 1997 and 2001=32
1.4. Import payments by national students studying abroad, 1989, 1997 and 2001=32
1.5. Attribution of the main modes of international supply of educational services=35
2.1. International students in the United States=51
2.2. Leading places of origin of international students in the United States=52
2.3. Duration of US study abroad, 1986-2002=53
2.4. Numbers of international students in Canada, by source country=58
2.5. International students in Canada by post-secondary education level and source country, 2001=59
2.6. Canadian students taking tertiary education outside of Canada, 2000/01=60
2.7. General information on academic programmes abroad, Canada, 1999=61
2.8. Geographic distribution of institutional agreements with Mexico=63
2.9. Overall ranking of internationalisation rationales by three sectors, Canada=72
2.10. Rationales for specific aspects of internationalisation, Canada=73
3.1. ERASMUS student mobility:actual numbers of students sent and hosted by country=91
3.2. Foreign students by host country, 1995-2001=92
3.3. Share of top seven receiving countries, 2001=111
3.4. Index of foreign students per domestic student abroad in tertiary education, 2001=116
3.5. Teacher mobility under SOCRATES by sending country, 1999/2000=124
4.1. Asia-Pacific countries:population, economy and public investment in education=141
4.2. Major languages used in the Asia-Pacific countries, 1999-2000=142
4.3. Asia-Pacific countries:participation in secondary education=143
4.4. Participation in upper secondary and tertiary education, selected Asia-Pacific countries as compared to OECD mean, 2000=144
4.5. Spending on education selected Asia-Pacific countries compared to OECD mean, 1999=145
4.6. Public/private split of spending on tertiary education institutions and household expenditure on tertiary education, selected Asia-Pacific countries compared to the OECD mean, 1999=146
4.7. An Asia-Pacific regional typology of cross-border education=147
4.8. Mega-cities, world and the Asia-Pacific region, 2000 and 2015=149
4.9. Real GDP growth in China, 1985-2001(percentage over previous year)=149
4.10. Foreign tertiary students from the Asia-Pacific region studying in all OECD countries and in the United States, 2001=150
4.11. Foreign students from Asia-Pacific entering tertiary education in OECD countries, by country of study, 2001=151
4.12. Foreign students enrolled in selected Asia-Pacific countries, by origin, 2001=154
4.13. Number of foreign students compared to number of domestic students abroad, selected nations in the Asia-Pacific region compared to OECD, 2001=155
4.14. Exchange students entering and leaving Australia, 1990/2001=171
4.15. Reasons for choosing to study abroad, survey of 1000 students from ten Asian countries=172
4.16. Comparative cost of foreign study in the English language countries, master of business, 2001=173
4.17. Growth of international student enrolments in Australia, 1994-2001=174
4.18. Australian educational exports:number of international student enrolments by sector of education and national origin, 2001=175
4.19. Foreign student enrolments by level and field of study=176
4.20. ICT networking potential, Asia-Pacific countries, 2000-02=184
4.21. ICT industry and capacity in OECD countries, in the Asia-Pacific region and in Anglophone countries=185
5.1. Number of tertiary foreign students in OECD countries from the 30 top sending countries(2001)=210
5.2. Percentage of foreign students enrolled in OECD countries by region, 1998 and 2001=211
5.3. English-speaking countries' shares of foreign tertiary students by origin, 1998 and 2001=211
5.4. International students' choice of field study compared with domestic students' choice of field study(1999)=213
6.1. Entry rates to tertiary education and expected years in tertiary education, 2001=240
6.2. Female participation in foreign and domestic enrolments at tertiary level, 2001=242
6.3. Distribution of public and private sources of funds for educational institutions(1995, 2000)=255
6.4. Foreign-born US scientists and engineers, by field and level of highest degree, 1999=280
6.5. Percentage of temporary residents receiving PhDs in Science and Engineering in the United States in 1996 who were in the United States, 1997-2001=281
6.6. Percentage of foreign students receiving PhDs in 1996 who were in the United States, 1997-2001, by field and visa type=282
6.7. Official Development Assistance(ODA) to post-secondary education and education(1995, 2001)=286
1.1. Direct expenditure of students' households on tertiary educational institutions, 1999=27
1.2. Index of foreign students per domestic student abroad in tertiary education by OECD country, 1998 and 2001=33
2.1. Number of US study abroad students=53
2.2. Number of university development projects in Canada, 1985-99=56
2.3. Geographical distribution of university development projects in Canada=56
2.4. University international exchange agreements with Canada=57
2.5. Agreements by world region, 1990, 1995, 1999=57
2.6. Types of agreements in Canada=58
2.7. Regions/countries of interest for Canadian students=60
3.1. Percentage of foreign students in Europe by continent of origin, 2001=93
3.2. Growth in number of foreign students in Europe by continent of origin, 1995-2001=115
5.1. Number of foreign tertiary students in OECD countries, by host country, 2001=207
5.2. Increase of foreign tertiary students in OECD countries, 1980-2001=208
5.3. Percentage of foreign students as a percentage of all(foreign and domestic) students, 1998, 2001=209
5.4. Four approaches to cross-border post-secondary education=232
6.1. Highly-skilled worker visas in Japan, entries=278