Title page
Contents
Editorial: Building for the future 11
Introduction: The Indicators and their Framework 13
Reader's Guide 16
Executive summary 21
The education sustainable development goal 25
Chapter A. The Output of Educational Institutions and the Impact of Learning 38
INDICATOR A1. TO WHAT LEVEL HAVE ADULTS STUDIED? 39
INDICATOR A2. WHO IS EXPECTED TO GRADUATE FROM UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION? 50
INDICATOR A3. WHO IS EXPECTED TO GRADUATE FROM TERTIARY EDUCATION? 60
INDICATOR A4. TO WHAT EXTENT DOES PARENTS' EDUCATION INFLUENCE THEIR CHILDREN'S EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT? 71
INDICATOR A5. HOW DOES EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AFFECT PARTICIPATION IN THE LABOUR MARKET? 83
INDICATOR A6. WHAT ARE THE EARNINGS ADVANTAGES FROM EDUCATION? 99
INDICATOR A7. WHAT ARE THE FINANCIAL INCENTIVES TO INVEST IN EDUCATION? 112
INDICATOR A8. HOW ARE SOCIAL OUTCOMES RELATED TO EDUCATION? 129
INDICATOR A9. HOW MANY STUDENTS COMPLETE UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION? 144
Chapter B. Financial and Human Resources Invested In Education 156
INDICATOR B1. HOW MUCH IS SPENT PER STUDENT? 159
INDICATOR B2. WHAT PROPORTION OF NATIONAL WEALTH IS SPENT ON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS? 171
INDICATOR B3. HOW MUCH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INVESTMENT ON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IS THERE? 181
INDICATOR B4. WHAT IS THE TOTAL PUBLIC SPENDING ON EDUCATION? 192
INDICATOR B5. HOW MUCH DO TERTIARY STUDENTS PAY AND WHAT PUBLIC SUPPORT DO THEY RECEIVE? 202
INDICATOR B6. ON WHAT RESOURCES AND SERVICES IS EDUCATION FUNDING SPENT? 214
INDICATOR B7. WHICH FACTORS INFLUENCE THE LEVEL OF EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION? 223
Chapter C. Access to Education, Participation and Progression 236
INDICATOR C1. WHO PARTICIPATES IN EDUCATION? 237
INDICATOR C2. HOW DO EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION SYSTEMS DIFFERA ROUND THE WORLD? 248
INDICATOR C3. WHO IS EXPECTED TO ENTER TERTIARY EDUCATION? 260
INDICATOR C4. WHAT IS THE PROFILE OF INTERNATIONALLYMOBILE STUDENTS? 273
INDICATOR C5. TRANSITION FROM SCHOOL TO WORK: WHERE ARE THE 15‑29 YEAR-OLDS? 290
INDICATOR C6. HOW MANY ADULTS PARTICIPATE IN EDUCATION AND LEARNING? 301
Chapter D. The Learning Environment and Organisation of Schools 318
INDICATOR D1. HOW MUCH TIME DO STUDENTS SPEND IN THE CLASSROOM? 319
INDICATOR D2. WHAT IS THE STUDENT-TEACHER RATIO AND HOW BIG ARE CLASSES? 335
INDICATOR D3. HOW MUCH ARE TEACHERS PAID? 345
INDICATOR D4. HOW MUCH TIME DO TEACHERS SPEND TEACHING? 362
INDICATOR D5. WHO ARE THE TEACHERS? 376
INDICATOR D6. WHAT ARE THE NATIONAL CRITERIA FOR STUDENTS TO APPLY TO AND ENTER INTO TERTIARY EDUCATION? 386
Annex 1. Characteristics of Education Systems 401
Annex 2. Reference Statistics 408
Annex 3. Sources, Methods and Technical Notes 423
Contributors to this Publication 424
Education Indicators in Focus 429
Table A1.1. Educational attainment of 25-64 year-olds (2016) 47
Table A1.2. Trends in educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds (2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2016) 48
Table A1.3. Field of study among tertiary-educated 25-64 year-olds (2016) 49
Table A2.1. Profile of upper secondary graduates from general and vocational programmes (2015) 57
Table A2.2. Upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary graduation rates (2015) 58
Table A2.3. Trends in upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary first-time graduation rates (2005, 2010 and 2015) 59
Table A3.1. Distribution of tertiary graduates, by field of study (2015) 68
Table A3.2. Profile of a first-time tertiary graduate (2015) 69
Table A3.3. First-time graduation rates, by tertiary level (2015) 70
Table A4.1. Tertiary attainment among adults whose parents both have less than tertiary educational attainment, by type of programme and age group (2012 or 2015) 80
Table A4.2. Tertiary attainment among adults who have at least one parent who attained tertiary education, by type of programme and age group (2012 or 2015) 81
Table A4.3. Changes in the likelihood of having a tertiary-type A or an advanced research programme degree, by gender, age group and parents' educational attainment (2012 or 2015) 82
Table A5.1. Employment rates of 25-64 year-olds, by educational attainment (2016) 95
Table A5.2. Trends in employment rates of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment (2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2016) 96
Table A5.3. Employment rates of tertiary-educated 25-64 year-olds, by field of study (2016) 97
Table A5.4. Employment, unemployment and inactivity rates of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment (2016) 98
Table A6.1. Relative earnings of workers, by educational attainment (2015) 109
Table A6.2. Level of earnings relative to median earnings, by educational attainment (2015) 110
Table A6.3. Differences in earnings between female and male workers, by educational attainment and age group (2015) 111
Table A7.1a. Private costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education (2013) 123
Table A7.1b. Private costs and benefits for a woman attaining tertiary education (2013) 124
Table A7.2a. Public costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education (2013) 125
Table A7.2b. Public costs and benefits for a woman attaining tertiary education (2013) 126
Table A7.3a. Private/public costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education, by level of tertiary education (2013) 127
Table A7.3b. Private/public costs and benefits for a woman attaining tertiary education, by level of tertiary education (2013) 128
Table A8.1. Percentage of adults who report having depression, by gender, age group and educational attainment (2014) 140
Table A8.2. Percentage of adults who report having depression, by labour-force status and educational attainment (2014) 141
Table A8.3. Changes in the likelihood of reporting having depression, by educational attainment and labour force status (2014) 142
Table A9.1. Completion rate of upper secondary education, by programme orientation and gender (2015) 154
Table A9.2. Distribution of entrants to upper secondary education, by programme orientation and outcomes after theoretical duration and after the theoretical duration plus two years (2015) 155
Table B1.1. Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services (2014) 168
Table B1.2. Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for core educational services, ancillary services and R&D (2014) 169
Table B1.3. Change in expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services, relative to different factors by levels of education (2008, 2011, 2014) 170
Table B2.1. Expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, by level of education (2014) 178
Table B2.2. Trends in expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, by level of education (2005, 2010 to 2014) 179
Table B2.3. Expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, by source of funding and level of education (2014) 180
Table B3.1a. Relative proportions of public and private expenditure on educational institutions, by level of education (2014) 188
Table B3.1b. Relative proportions of disaggregated public and private expenditure on educational institutions, by level of education (2014) 189
Table B3.2a. Trends in the relative proportion of public expenditure on educational institutions and index of change in public and private expenditure, at primary, secondary, 190
Table B3.2b. Trends in the relative proportion of public expenditure on tertiary educational institutions and index of change in public and private expenditure (2005, 2008, 2011 to 2014) 191
Table B4.1. Total public expenditure on education (2014) 199
Table B4.2. Trends in total public expenditure on primary to tertiary education (2005, 2008, 2010 to 2014) 200
Table B4.3. Share of sources of public funds by level of government (2014) 201
Table B5.1. Estimated annual average tuition fees charged by tertiary educational institutions (2015/16) 210
Table B5.2/Table B5.3. Average tuition fees charged by tertiary public and private institutions, by field of study (2015/16) 212
Table B5.3/Table B5.4. Distribution of financial support to students (2015/16) 213
Table B6.1. Share of current and capital expenditure by education level (2014) 220
Table B6.2. Current expenditure by resource category (2014) 221
Table B6.3. Share of current expenditure by resource category and type of institution (2014) 222
Table B7.1. Salary cost of teachers per student, by level of education (2010 and 2015) 233
Table B7.2. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in primary education (2015) 234
Table B7.3. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in lower secondary education (2015) 235
Table C1.1. Enrolment rates by age group (2005 and 2015) 245
Table C1.2. Students enrolled as a percentage of the population between the ages of 15 and 20 (2005 and 2015) 246
Table C1.3. Enrolment in upper secondary education, by programme orientation and age group (2015) 247
Table C2.1. Enrolment rates in early childhood and primary education, by age (2005 and 2015) 257
Table C2.2. Characteristics of early childhood educational development programmes and pre-primary education (2015) 258
Table C2.3. Expenditure on early childhood educational institutions (2014) 259
Table C3.1. Share of new entrants to tertiary education, by field of study and gender (2015) 270
Table C3.2. Profile of first-time entrants into tertiary education (2015) 271
Table C3.3. First-time entry rates, by tertiary level (2015) 272
Table C4.1. International student mobility and foreign students in tertiary education (2015) 287
Table C4.2. Share of tertiary students enrolled in broad fields of study, by mobility status (2015) 288
Table C4.3. Mobility patterns of foreign and international students (2015) 289
Table C5.1. Percentage of 18-24 year-olds in education/not in education, by work status (2016) 298
Table C5.2. Trends in the percentage of young adults in education/not in education, employed or not, by age (2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2016) 299
Table C6.1a. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education (2012 or 2015) 312
Table C6.1b. Willingness to participate in formal and/or non-formal education and barriers to participation (2012 or 2015) 313
Table C6.2a. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by age group and whether there are young children in the household (2012 or 2015) 314
Table C6.2b. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by gender and whether there are young children in the household (2012 or 2015) 315
Table C6.3a. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by labour-force status and participation in volunteering activities (2012 or 2015) 316
Table C6.3b. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by age group and participation in volunteering activities (2012 or 2015) 317
Table D1.1. Instruction time in compulsory general education (2017) 330
Table D1.2. Organisation of compulsory general education (2017) 332
Table D1.3a. Instruction time per subject in primary education (2017) 333
Table D1.3b. Instruction time per subject in general lower secondary education (2017) 334
Table D2.1. Average class size by type of institution (2015) 342
Table D2.2. Ratio of students to teaching staff in educational institutions (2015) 343
Table D2.3. Ratio of students to teaching staff, by type of institution (2015) 344
Table D3.1a. Teachers' statutory salaries, based on typical qualifications, at different points in teachers' careers (2015) 359
Table D3.2a. Teachers' actual salaries relative to earnings of tertiary-educated workers (2015) 360
Table D3.3/Table D3.4. Average actual teachers' salaries, by age group and by gender (2015) 361
Table D4.1. Organisation of teachers' working time (2015) 372
Table D4.2. Number of teaching hours per year (2000, 2005 to 2015) 373
Table D4.3. Tasks and responsibilities of teachers, by level of education (2015) 374
Table D5.1. Age distribution of teachers (2005 and 2015) 383
Table D5.2. Gender distribution of teachers (2015) 384
Table D5.3. Gender distribution of teachers (2005 and 2015) 385
Table D6.1. Organisation of the admission system to first-degree tertiary programmes (2017) 395
Table D6.2/Table D6.3. Minimum qualification and academic performance requirements for entry into tertiary education (government perspective) (2017) 397
Table D6.3/Table D6.4. Application process for entry into first-degree tertiary programmes (2017) 398
Table D6.4/Table D6.5. Use of examinations/tests to determine entry/admission into first-degree tertiary programmes (2017) 399
Figure A1.1. Fields of study among tertiary-educated 25-64 year-olds (2016) 39
Figure A1.2. Educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds (2016) 41
Figure A1.3. Percentage of 25-34 year-olds whose highest level of education is upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary, by programme orientation (2016) 42
Figure A1.4. Percentage of 25-64 year-olds with tertiary education, by subnational regions (2016) 44
Figure A2.1. Share of female graduates from upper secondary vocational programmes, by field of study (2015) 50
Figure A2.2. Share of upper secondary graduates from vocational programmes, by age group (2015) 53
Figure A2.3. Trends in first-time upper secondary graduation rates for students younger than 25 (2005, 2015) 54
Figure A3.1. Distribution of tertiary graduates on average across OECD and partner countries, by field of study and by ISCED level (2015) 60
Figure A3.2. Distribution of first-time tertiary graduates by level of education (2015) 63
Figure A3.3. Average age of first-time graduates compared to first-time entrants into tertiary education (2015) 64
Figure A3.4. First-time tertiary graduation rates for national students younger than 30 (2005, 2015) 65
Figure A4.1. Educational attainment of 30-44 and 45-59 year-olds, by parents' educational attainment (2012 or 2015) 71
Figure A4.2. Share of 30-44 and 45-59 year-olds with no tertiary-educated parent who completed a tertiary-type A or an advanced research programme (2012 or 2015) 74
Figure A4.3. Share of 30-44 year-olds who completed tertiary-type A or an advanced research programme, by parents' educational attainment (2012 or 2015) 75
Figure A4.4. Share of 30-44 year-olds who completed a tertiary-type B programme, by parents' educational attainment (2012 or 2015) 76
Figure A4.5. Cumulative likelihood of having a tertiary-type A or an advanced research programme degree (2012 or 2015) 77
Figure A5.1. Employment rates of tertiary-educated 25-64 year-olds, by field of study (2016) 83
Figure A5.2. Trends in employment rates of 25-34 year-olds with below upper secondary education (2005 and 2016) 85
Figure A5.3. Employment rates of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2016) 86
Figure A5.4. Unemployment rates of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment (2016) 90
Figure A6.1. Relative earnings of adults, by educational attainment (2015) 99
Figure A6.2. Relative earnings of tertiary-educated workers and their share of the population (2015) 102
Figure A6.3. Share of earners among students, by age (2015) 106
Figure A6.4. Earnings of students as a percentage of earnings of non-students, by age (2015) 106
Figure A7.1. Private net financial returns for a man or a woman attaining tertiary education (2013) 112
Figure A7.2. Private costs and benefits of education for a man or a woman attaining tertiary education (2013) 115
Figure A7.3. Public costs and benefits of education for a man or a woman attaining tertiary education (2013) 116
Figure A7.4. Private costs and benefits of education for a woman attaining a short-cycle tertiary degree or a bachelor's, master's and doctoral or equivalent degree (2013) 117
Figure A8.1. Percentage of adults who report having depression, by educational attainment (2014) 129
Figure A8.2. Percentage of adults who report having depression, by gender and educational attainment (2014) 131
Figure A8.3. Percentage of adults who report having depression, by labour-force status and educational attainment (2014) 133
Figure A8.4. Likelihood of reporting depression when accounting for gender, age and earnings (2014) 134
Figure A9.1. Completion rate of upper secondary education by gender (2015) 144
Figure A9.2. Outcomes for students who entered upper secondary education, by duration (2015) 147
Figure A9.3. Completion rate of upper secondary education, by programme orientation (2015) 150
Figure B1.1. Annual expenditure by educational institutions per student, by types of service (2014) 159
Figure B1.2. Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services, by level of education (2014) 162
Figure B1.3. Cumulative expenditure per student by educational institutions over the expected duration of primary and secondary studies (2014) 163
Figure B2.1. Expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP (2014) 171
Figure B2.2. Public and private expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, by level of education (2014) 174
Figure B2.3. Index of change in public expenditure on educational institutions and in GDP (2008 to 2014) 176
Figure B3.1. Share of private expenditure on educational institutions (2014) 181
Figure B3.2. Distribution of public and private expenditure on educational institutions (2014) 184
Figure B3.3. Change in private expenditure on tertiary educational institutions 185
Figure B4.1. Change in total public expenditure on education as a share of total government expenditure between 2010 and 2014 192
Figure B4.2. Composition of total public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure (2014) 194
Figure B4.3. Distribution of initial sources of public funds for education and change in government levels' share of funds after intergovernmental transfers (2014) 196
Figure B5.1. Tuition fees charged by public and private institutions at bachelor's or equivalent level (2015/16) 202
Figure B5.2. Average tuition fees charged by public institutions at bachelor's or equivalent level for selected fields of study (2015/16) 205
Figure B5.3. Distribution of financial support to students at bachelor's or equivalent level (2015/16) 207
Figure B6.1. Share of capital expenditure as a percentage of total expenditure in public and private institutions (2014) 214
Figure B6.2. Composition of current expenditure in public educational institutions (2014) 217
Figure B7.1. Annual salary cost of teachers per student in public institutions, by level of education (2015) 223
Figure B7.2. Change in the salary cost of teachers per student, teachers' salaries and estimated class size in primary and lower secondary education (2010 and 2015) 227
Figure B7.3. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in public institutions, lower secondary education (2015) 229
Figure C1.1. Enrolment rates of 15-19 year-olds, by programme level and orientation (2015) 237
Figure C1.2. Enrolment rate at age 18 (2005, 2010 and 2015) 240
Figure C1.3. Share of students enrolled in tertiary education, by type of institution (2015) 242
Figure C2.1. Enrolment rates at ages 2 to 5 in early childhood and primary education (2015) 248
Figure C2.2. Percentage of children enrolled in public and private institutions in pre-primary education (2015) 251
Figure C2.3. Expenditure on early childhood educational institutions (2014) 253
Figure C3.1. Distribution of new entrants to tertiary education, by STEM field of study and share of women in these fields (2015) 260
Figure C3.2. Average age of new entrants at tertiary level, by level of education (2015) 264
Figure C3.3. First-time tertiary entry rates (2005, 2015) 266
Figure C3.4. First-time tertiary entry rates below the age of 25 (excluding international students), by gender (2015) 266
Figure C4.1. Incoming student mobility in tertiary education, by ISCED level (2015) 273
Figure C4.2. Doctoral student mobility by field of study, OECD average (2015) 276
Figure C4.3. International student circulation in total tertiary education (2015) 278
Figure C5.1. Percentage of 18-24 year-olds in education/not in education, employed, unemployed or inactive (2016) 290
Figure C5.2. Percentage of 18-24 year-old unemployed or inactive NEETs, by gender (2016) 292
Figure C5.3. Trends in the percentage of 20-24 year-old NEETs (2005 and 2016) 294
Figure C5.4. Percentage of 15-19 year-old NEETs (2016) and percentage of 15-year-old students with low literacy skills (2015) 295
Figure C6.1. Adults' participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by type (2012 or 2015) 301
Figure C6.2. Barriers to participating in formal and/or non-formal education (2012 or 2015) 304
Figure C6.3. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education among young adults with or without young children in the household (2012 or 2015) 305
Figure C6.4. Young children in the household and relative participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by gender (2012 or 2015) 306
Figure C6.5. Volunteering and relative participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by labour-force status (2012 or 2015) 307
Figure C6.6. Volunteering and relative participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by age group (2012 and 2015) 308
Figure D1.1. Compulsory instruction time in general education (2017) 319
Figure D1.2a. Instruction time per subject in primary education (2017) 325
Figure D1.2b. Instruction time per subject in general lower secondary education (2017) 326
Figure D2.1. Average class size in educational institutions, by level of education (2015) 335
Figure D2.2. Change in average class size (2005, 2015) 338
Figure D2.3. Ratio of students to teaching staff in upper secondary education, by type of institution (2015) 340
Figure D3.1. Lower secondary teachers' salaries relative to earnings for tertiary-educated workers (2015) 345
Figure D3.2. Lower secondary teachers' statutory salaries at different points in teachers' careers (2015) 350
Figure D3.3. Change in teachers' salaries in OECD countries (2005-15) 352
Figure D3.4. Change in lower secondary teachers' statutory salaries (2010, 2013 and 2015) 354
Figure D4.1. Number of teaching hours per year in general lower secondary education (2000, 2005 and 2015) 362
Figure D4.2. Number of teaching hours per year, by level of education (2015) 365
Figure D4.3. Percentage of lower secondary teachers' working time spent teaching (2015) 368
Figure D5.1. Average age of teachers by education level (2015) 376
Figure D5.2. Gender distribution of teachers (2015) 379
Figure D5.3. Share of female teachers at lower secondary level, by age group (2015) 380
Figure D6.1. Use of limits on number of students entering fields of study and institutions within countries with open and selective systems (2017) 386
Figure D6.2. Purposes and uses of national/central examinations as admission criteria to tertiary institutions (2017) 390
Figure D6.3. Application process for entry into first-degree tertiary programmes - use of centralised application systems (2017) 391
Boxes
Box A5.1. Labour market outcomes for adults with a work-study qualification 87
Box A5.2. Relative employment advantage by educational attainment 91
Box A6.1. Earnings growth since graduation 103
Box A7.1. Foregone earnings and students working while studying 118
Box A7.2. The effect of the discount rate on the net financial returns to education 119
Box A8.1. Thematic framework for the indicator on education and social outcomes in Education at a Glance 134
Box A8.2. Personal safety and educational attainment 136
Box A9.1. How immigrant status and parents' educational attainment affect completion rates 148
Box A9.2. Trends in completion rates 151
Box B1.1. The link between cumulative education spending per student and reading performance in PISA 164
Box B7.1. Calculating the salary cost of teachers per student 225
Box B7.2. Salary cost of teachers per child in pre-primary education 230
Box C3.1. Career expectations at 15 and first-time entry rates by field of study 262
Box C3.2. Long first degree 264
Box C3.3. Inequality in access to tertiary education 267
Box C4.1. International mobility and tuition fees 279
Box C4.2. Long-term trends in the global number of students enrolled abroad (foreign students definition) 282
Box C6.1. Massive open online courses 309
Box D1.1. Recess and breaks during the school day 321
Box D1.2. Extracurricular activities at school 322
Box D1.3. Compulsory, intended and self-reported actual instruction time of 15-year-olds 323
Box D2.1. Number of teachers per class 338
Box D2.2. What is the relationship between class size and the student-teacher ratio? 340
Box D3.1. Comparability of statutory salary data 347
Box D3.2. Typical qualifications of teachers 348
Box D3.3. Actual average salaries, by age group and gender 355
Box D4.1. Comparability of statutory teaching time data (2015) 364
Box D4.2. Non-teaching tasks required of teachers in lower secondary education (2015) 368
Box Tables
Table A5.a. Labour market status for 25-34 year-olds with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education, by programme orientation and type of vocational programme (2015) 88
Table A7.a. Net financial returns for a man attaining tertiary education, by discount rate (2013) 119
Table A8.a. Thematic framework for the indicator on education and social outcomes in Education at a Glance 135
Table A8.b. Summary of the dimensions foreseen in future editions of Education at a Glance 135
Table A8.c. Previous indicators on education and social outcomes in Education at a Glance since 2009 136
Table B7.a. Main factors influencing salary cost of teacher per student in USD, by level of education (2015) 229
Table C4.a. Tuition fees for international students 280
Box Figures
Figure A5.a. Percentage of 25-34 year-olds with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education, by programme orientation and type of vocational programmes (2015) 87
Figure A5.b. Employment rates of adults with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education, by age, programme orientation and type of vocational programmes (2015) 89
Figure A5.c. Relative employment advantage of 25-34 year-olds, by educational attainment (2016) 92
Figure A6.a. Annual growth in earnings for adults following the three years after graduation, by educational attainment (2011) 103
Figure A6.b. Cross-cohort annual growth in earnings of 25-34 and 55-64 year-olds, by educational attainment (2015) 104
Figure A7.a. Change in private net financial returns and foregone earnings for a man attaining tertiary education when student earnings are taken into account (2013) 118
Figure A8.a. Percentage of adults who report having been assaulted or mugged and educational attainment (2015) 137
Figure A9.a. Completion rate of upper secondary education by parents' educational background and students' immigrant status (2015) 148
Figure A9.b. Trends in completion rates of upper secondary education, by programme orientation 151
Figure B1.a. Relationship between cumulative expenditure per student between the age of 6 and 15 and average reading performance in PISA 164
Figure B7.a. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per child in public institutions, pre-primary education (2015) 230
Figure C3.a. Career expectations of 15-year-old girls and share of female new entrants into science-related fields 263
Figure C3.b. Share of new entrants into a long first degree (master's), in the field of health and engineering (2015) 265
Figure C3.c. Inequality in access to tertiary education among 18-24 year-olds (2015) 268
Figure C4.a. Long-term growth in foreign enrolment in tertiary education worldwide, 1975-2015 282
Figure D1.a. Instruction time for 15-year-olds (2015) 324
Figure D2.a. Number of teachers per class (2015) 338
Figure D4.a. Tasks and responsibilities lower secondary teachers are required to perform (2015) 369
Annex Tables
Table X1.1a. Typical graduation ages, by level of education (2015) 402
Table X1.1b. Typical age of entry by level of education (2015) 404
Table X1.2a. School year and financial year used for the calculation of indicators, OECD countries 405
Table X1.2b. School year and financial year used for the calculation of indicators, partner countries 406
Table X1.3. Starting and ending age for students in compulsory education (2015) 407
Table X2.1. Basic reference statistics (reference period: calendar year 2014 and 2015) 409
Table X2.2. Basic reference statistics 410
Table X2.3. Basic reference statistics 412
Table X2.4a. Teachers' statutory salaries at different points in their careers, for teachers with typical qualification (2015) 414
Table X2.4b. Teachers' statutory salaries at different points in their careers, for teachers with minimum qualification (2015) 416
Table X2.4c/Table X2.4e. Reference statistics used in calculating teachers' salaries (2000, 2005 to 2015) 418
Table X2.4d/Table X2.4f. Trends in average teachers' actual salaries, in national currency (2000, 2005, 2010 to 2015) 419
Table X2.5. Teachers with 15 years of experience, by level of qualification (2015) 421
Table X2.6. Percentage of pre-primary, primary, lower secondary and upper secondary teachers, by level of attainment (2015) 422