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Title Page
Contents
ABSTRACT 11
I. INTRODUCTION 13
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS 16
1. Cell culture and drug treatments 16
2. Analysis of autophagy by confocal microscopy 16
3. RNA extraction and real-time RT-PCR(quantitative PCR) 17
4. Immunoblotting 19
5. Glucose output assay 20
6. BECN1 RNA interference 20
7. Animals 21
8. Oral glucose tolerance, insulin tolerance, and pyruvate tolerance tests 22
9. Plasma glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and free fatty acid measurement 22
10. Transmission electron microscopy 22
11. Statistical analysis 23
III. RESULTS 24
1. Statins increase gluconeogenic enzyme expression in HepG2 cells 24
2. Statins induce autophagic flux leading to enhanced expression of gluconeogenic enzymes 28
3. Blockage of autophagic flux attenuates statin's effect on gluconeogenesis 31
4. ATG7 is necessary for statin-induced gluconeogenesis in the liver 34
5. Akt-FoxO1 pathway has no effect on statin induced gluconeogenesis but decrease mTOR phosphorylation 36
6. Statins increase hepatic gluconeogenesis, leading to hepatic insulin resistance in high-fat diet-fed mice 41
7. Statins increase hepatic gluconeogenesis and autophagy in high-fat diet-fed mice 46
IV. DISCUSSION 50
V. CONCLUSION 54
REFERENCES 55
ABSTRACT(IN KOREAN) 60
PUBLICATION LIST 62
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Glycolysis is... 24
Figure 2. Insulin inhibits gluconeogenic gene expression and enhances... 25
Figure 3. Statins increase gluconeogenic gene expression in HepG2 cells. HepG2... 26
Figure 4. Statin has no direct effect on glycolytic gene expression in HepG2 cells.... 27
Figure 5. Statins induce autophagic vacuoles in HepG2 cells. HepG2 cells were... 28
Figure 6. Statins increase autophagy flux in HepG2 cell. HepG2 cells were... 29
Figure 7. Stains increase autolysosome formation in HepG2 cells. After... 30
Figure 8. Chloroquine decrease gluconeogenic gene expression and glucose... 31
Figure 9. Bafilomycin A1 decrease gluconeogenic gene expression and glucose... 32
Figure 10. Statin has no effect on gluconeogenic gene expression without... 33
Figure 11. The gluconeogenic effect of statins is attenuated in primary... 35
Figure 12. Glucogenic amino acid, alanine, enhances glucose output of HepG2... 37
Figure 13. Elevated FoxO1 phosphorylation by statins in primary hepatocyte.... 38
Figure 14. Akt phosphorylation was decreased with statin treatment in primary... 39
Figure 15. Down-regulation of mTOR signaling by statin treatment. Insulin... 40
Figure 16. Statin treatment increases body weight of high fat diet fed mice... 41
Figure 17. Fasting blood glucose levels were elevated in statin-treated mice.... 42
Figure 18. Statin treatment impairs insulin and pyruvate tolerance in high-fat... 44
Figure 19. Statins decrease lipid profile in mouse serum. Statin treatments... 45
Figure 20. Gluconeogenic and glycolytic gene expression in mouse liver. Statin... 46
Figure 21. Electron microscopy analysis of autophagosomes in the livers of... 49
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