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Title Page

Abstract

Contents

I. Introduction 13

1.1. Preliminary Trip and Research Question 16

1.2. Organization 18

1.3. Scope of the Study and Terms 23

II. Background of the Voices 27

2.1. Assigning Political Intentions to Migration 27

2.1.1. How It Started: Background of Migration from North Korea 28

2.1.2. Between Traitor and Propagandist: How North Korea Perceives the Ones who Left Their Country 29

2.1.3. Between Human Trophies and Communists: How South Korea Perceives the People from North Korea 32

2.1.4. Between Demand of the Marriage Market to Calculation for the International Politics: How China Perceives the Ones who Left Their Country 43

2.2. Women and Migration in the Context of North Korean Women 51

2.2.1. Feminization of North Korean Migrants 52

2.2.2. Women in Socialist State 54

2.2.3. Gaps between Ideology and Reality 56

2.2.4. Debunked Patriarchy: Economic Downturn and Consequent Changes among Women 63

2.3. Migration and Choice 70

2.3.1. Disciplinary Explanations 71

2.3.2. Choice and Migration: Analytical Frames 74

2.4. Migration and Limited Choices 84

2.4.1. Categories of Migration 86

2.4.2. Migration Choice of Women 95

III. Methodology 105

3.1. Overview 105

3.2. Qualitative Study 106

3.2.1. Interview Questions as a Signpost 108

3.2.2. Approaches in South Korea 112

3.2.3. In-Depth Interviews and Observations in China 120

3.2.4. Ethics 122

3.3. Issues of Representativeness 123

IV. The Voices of the Women 125

4.1. Why Leave: Security Threatened 130

4.2. Why Leave: Disappointment in the North Korean Regime 132

4.3. Trafficking 135

4.4. Are You Happy: Domestic Violence 140

4.5. Why Leave and Why Stay: Family 141

4.5.1. Husband 142

4.5.2. Children 146

4.6. Why Stay: Fear of Repatriation 151

4.7. Why Stay: Fear of Different Regime 152

4.8. Why Stay: Age 153

4.9. Why Leave: Wanderlust 154

4.10. Are You Happy: Religion and Church 156

4.11. Are You Happy: A Society of Competition? 160

4.12. Are You Happy: Marginalized Others/Discrimination 163

4.13. Are You Happy: Failed Dreams 167

4.14. Why Leave: Career Ambition 168

4.15. Are You Happy: Health 171

4.16. Are You Happy: Power of Community and the Shadows 173

4.17. Are You Happy: Potential Love 177

4.18. Why Leave: Economic Reasons 180

4.19. Preference of Society 182

4.20. Tend My Sheep vs. Let My People Go 187

V. Conclusion 190

5.1. Trafficking: A Choice of Migration or Forced Migration? 193

5.2. Love Paradox: Is Family a Haven in the Unsecured World or a Fetter against the Better World? 199

5.3. South Korea: A "Land of Canaan" or Another "Inferno?" 203

5.4. A Good Friend Worth more than a Country? - Power of Social Network 206

5.5. Policy Implications 208

5.5.1. Existing Law and Further Questions: Regarding the North Koreans in South Korea 209

5.5.2. Regarding the North Koreans in China 214

5.6. Further Works 221

Bibliography 223

Appendix 234

Appendix I. Written Surveys 234

Appendix II. Existing Statistics on Migration Choice of the People from North Korea 246

Appendix III. North Korean Refugees Protection and Settlement Support Act 255

Appendix IV. Details of Settlement Support for North Korean Migrants 276

Appendix V. Panmunjeom Declaration 279

Appendix VI. Number of North Korean Refugees and Asylum-Seekers around the World(Except Republic of Korea and China) 283

Table 1. Number of North Korean Asylum-Seekers and Refugees (Worldwide) 25

Table 2. Number of the North Korean Border Crossers to South Korea... 37

Table 3. Total Number of North Koreans Entering South Korea 41

Table 4. Number of North Koreans Entering South Korea (Including Gender Proportion) 53

Table 5. Income by Position of Work in North Korea 60

Table 6. Questions as Signpost 110

Table 7. Reasons for Leaving North Korea (in 2016) 127

Table 8. Reasons for Leaving North Korea (in 2014) 128

Table 9. Respondents' Reason for Leaving North Korea 136

Table 10. The Reasons for dissatisfaction in South Korean Life (In Year 2015) 165

Figure 1. Difficulties of North Korean Defectors in China 46

Figure 2. Six Clusters with Different Characteristics 114

Figure 3. Motivation and Choice 197

Figure 4. Motivation and Choice 197

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