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List of Contributors xi
Preface xiii
PART I: Radar Principles
D.V. Nezlin
1 Radar Systems 3
1.1 General Properties of Radar Systems 3
1.2 Block Diagram of a Radar 5
1.3 Signal Detection 7
1.4 Radar Resolution 8
1.4.1 Range Resolution 8
1.4.2 Angular Resolution 9
1.4.3 Range Rate Resolution 10
1.4.4 Volume Resolution Cell and Surface Resolution Cell 11
1.5 Radar Measurements 13
1.6 Radar Equation and Range Coverage; Target RCS 16
1.6.1 Classification of Radars by the Relative Position of the Receiver and
the Transmitter 16
1.6.2 Range Coverage of Active and Semi-active Radar Systems
in Free Space 16
1.6.3 Range Coverage of an Active Radar System with
an Active Response 19
1.6.4 Range Coverage of a Passive Radar 19
1.6.5 Target Radar Cross-Section; RCS of Selected Objects 19
1.7 Atmospheric Attenuation ofRF Signals 22
1.8 Maximum Radar Range Line-of-sight Limitation of the Radar Range: Target
Elevation Measurement 25
1.9 The Impact of Earth Surface Reflections on the Radar Range and Evelation ~easurementJ\ccuracy 28
1.9.1 Target Elevation ~easurement Errors 31
2 Radar Signals and Signal Processing 33
2.1 Coherent and Noncoherent Signal Sequences 33
2.2 Optimum and ~atched Filters 37
2.3 Transversal ~atched Filter 42
2.4 Correlation Processing of Signals 45
2.5 Complex Envelope Processing 47
2.6 FFT-Based Digital Signal Processing 52
2.6.1 Types of FFT Processor-based Filters 52
2.6.2 FFT Processor as a Filter Bank 53
2.6.3 FFT Processor-based Filter with an J\rbitrary
Frequency Response 54
2.7 Simple and Complicated Waveforms; Signal Base 56
2.8 Linear FM and Phase-coded Waveforms 58
2.8.1 Linear Frequency ~odulation Pulses 58
2.8.2 Phase-coded Waveforms 62
2.9 J\mbiguity and Generalized J\mbiguity Functions of Radar Signals 69
2.9.1 J\mbiguity Function of an RF Pulse with a Rectangular Envelope 73
2.9.2 J\mbiguity Function of a Chirp Pulse 74
2.9.3 J\mbiguity Function of a Phase-coded Waveform 77
3 Radar Power Budget Analysis and Radar Systems Classification 79
3.1 Introduction 79
3.2 Barton's ~ethod for Required Signal-to-noise Ratio Calculation 82
3.3 Radar Parallel and Successive Surveillance 85
3.3.1 Introduction 85
3.3.2 Scan of Target Range Coverage 87
3.3.3 J\ngular Survey 88
3.4 Coherent and Noncoherent Pulsed Radars 88
3.5 CW Radars with Nonmodulated and ~odulated Signals 90
3.5.1 Introduction 90
3.5.2 Radar with a Nonmodulated Carrier 91
3.5.3 CW Radars with a Modulated Carrier 96
4 Target Tracking 103
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Tracking System Structure 103
4.3 J\nalogue Tracking Devices 105
4.4 Digital Tracking Devices 106
4.4.1 Digital Tracking System with Second-Order Astaticism 110
4.5 Main Errors in Tracking Radars 111
4.5.1 Dynamic Errors in Target Tracking 113
4.5.2 Dynamic Errors in Tracking Systems 113
4.5.3 Fluctuation Errors (Target Glint) 114
4.5.4 .Angle Tracking Error in a Conical-scan Radar Due to
J\mplitude Noise 115
4.6 Angle Tracking Devices 115
4.6.1 Sum Difference Based Monopulse Tracker with a Comparison
of Signal Phases 116
4.6.2 Phased Array Based Monopulse Radar 119
4.6.3 Conical Scan Tracker 121
4.6.4 Quadrant Scan (Sequential Lobing) Tracker 123
4.7 Target Range and Target Velocity Trackers 126
4.7.1 Target Range Tracker 126
4.7.2 Frequency Trackers 128
5 Radar Antennas 131
5.1 Purpose of Radar Antennas and Their Fundamental Parameters 131
5.2 Main Types of Antennas used in Radars 134
5.3 Electronically Steerable Antennas 139
5.3.1 Introduction 139
5.3.2 Directional Pattern of a Phased Array Antenna 140
5.3.3 Phased Array Bandwidth 144
5.3.4 Target Angular Position Errors Due to Discrete Phase Control 146
5.4 Concept of Digital Arrays 146
5.5 Sidelobes Reduction 148
6 Synthetic Aperture Radar 149
6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Model of an SAR as a Phased Array 151
6.3 Signal Processing in an SAR 152
6.4 Model of an SAR as a Filter Matched with an LFM Signal 155
6.5 Additional Constraint on Synthetic Aperture Size 157
6.6 Spotlight Mode 158
7 Interference Protection 161
7.1 Introduction 161
7.2 The Main Types of Interference 161
7.3 Ground Clutter and Chaff Level Evaluation for Pulse and
CW Modulated Signals 162
7.4 Moving Target Indicator and Moving Target Detector 164
7.5 Adaptive Antenna Arrays 168
8 Microelectronic Aerological Radar 'MARL-A' 173
8.1 Designated Purpose of the Radar 173
8.2 System Specifications 173
8.3 System Structure 174
8.4 Range Coverage of the Radar 178
8.4.1 Range Coverage over the Sounder Interrogation Channel 178
8.4.2 Range Coverage over the Sounder Signal Reception Channel 179
Abbreviations 181
Variables 183
Acknowledgements 185
PART II: Bistatic Radars
v.I. Kostylev
9 Different Types of Radar Systems 189
10 Scattering Fundamentals 193
10.1 Some Basic Concepts from Electromagnetic Theory 193
10.2 Plane Wave Incidence on a Smooth, Flat Interface between Two Mediums 203
10.3 Rough Scattering Surfaces 206
10.4 The Scattering Problem for Small Targets 208
10.5 Bistatic Cross-sections 211
10.6 Target Scattering Matrices 220
11 Geometry of Bistatic Radars 225
11.1 3D Geometry of Bistatic Radars 225
11.1.1 Systems of Coordinates 225
11.1.2 Systems of Reference 228
11.2 2D Geometry of Bistatic Radars 231
11.2.1 Systems of Coordinates 231
11.2.2 Resolution 235
11.2.3 Ambiguity Function 237
12 . Maximum Range and Effective Area 243
13 Signal Models 251
13.1 Signals formed by a Motionless Target 251
13.2 Signal Model of the Moving Target 253
13.2.1 Passive Radar 253
13.2.2 Active Radar 255
13.3 Signal Model in a Forward Scattering Radar 256
13.3.1 Diffraction Foundations 256
13.3.2 Signal Model in the Case of a Small Target 261
13.3.3 Signal Model in the Case of a Target with a Rectangular Shape 269
13.3.4 Signal Model of a Target with an Arbitrary Form 275
14 Advanced Scattering 281
14.1 Electromagnetic Theory Principles 281
14.1.1 The Kirchhoff Integral and the Stratton-Chu Equations 281
14.1.2 Electromagnetic Models 283
14.1.3 Numerical Solutions 301
14.1.4 Hybrid Methods 317
14.1.5 Monostatic-Bistatic Equivalence Theorem 326
14.2 Examples of Bistatic Cross-Sections 342
14.2.1 Simple Shapes 342
14.2.2 Random Rough Surfaces 349
14.2.3 Sea Surface 379
Summary of Part II 383
Abbreviations 385
Variables 387
PART III: Forward-scattering Radars
A.B. Blyakhman, A.G. Ryndyk, A.V. Myakinkov
15 Basic Principles of Forward-scattering Radars 395
15.1 Forward-scatter Radar Cross-section 395
15.2 Advantages and Problems of the FSR 400
15.3 Coverage of the FSR 404
15.4 Characteristics of the Interferential Signal 408
16 Measurement of Target Coordinates in a 2D FSR 417
16.1 Measurement of Primary Parameters 417
16.2 Coordinate Measurement Algorithm Based on the Maximum Likelihood
Method 420
16.2.1 Mathematical Model of Measuring Process; Maximum Likelihood
Estimation of Trajectory Parameters 420
16.2.2 Potential Accuracy of Trajectory Parameters Measurement 421
16.2.3 Iterative Algorithm of a Coordinate Estimation 422
16.2.4 Evaluation of the Initial Approximation 423
16.2.5 Parametric Ambiguity Elimination 424
16.3 Extrapolation Algorithm of the Target Coordinate Measurement 428
16.3.1 Basic Relationships 428
16.3.2 Features of Tracking before Baseline Crossing 429
16.3.3 Tracking Accuracy Estimation 430
17 Coordinate Measurement in a 3D FSR 437
17.1 Systematic Errors of Target Tracking in a 2D FSR 437
17.2 Iterative Coordinate Estimation Algorithm for a 3D FSR 439
17.2.1 Mathematical Model of the Measuring Process 439
17.2.2 Potential Accuracy 440
17.2.3 Iterative Algorithm of the Coordinate Estimation 442
17.2.4 Mathematical Modelling Results 444
17.3 Extrapolation Tracking Algorithm for a 3D FSR 445
18 3D FSR with an Array Antenna 449
18.1 Introduction 449
18.2 Space-time Processing Algorithm 450
3 Primary Measurement Characteristics 457
19 FSR Design and Experimental Investigation 463
19.1 Introduction 463
19.2 Experimental FSR 463
19.3 Experimental Conditions 467
19.4 Clutter Level and Clutter Spectrum Estimation 467
19.5 Detection of Airborne Targets 470
19.5.1 Experimental Conditions 470
19.5.2 Echo Signals from Airborne Targets 470
19.5.3 FS RCS 472
19.5.4 Radar Coverage 475
19.5.5 Measurement of Primary Coordinates and Trajectory Parameters 475
19.6 Conclusion 475
Summary of Part II 479
Abbreviations 481
Variables 483
References 487
Index 497
이용현황보기
With contributions from international experts working with bistatic radar, this book provides an introduction to the technology, covering information on basic principles and design. Starting with a detailed look at monostatic radar, examining the development of the field as a whole, the book then goes on to:
Bistatic Radar: Principles and Practice gives an up-to-date overview of this important technology for practising engineers and researchers involved in the design and implementation of bistatic radar in a range of industries. It is also a valuable reference for advanced students taking special courses in radar technology.
New feature
With contributions from international experts working with bistatic radar, this book, the first in a series on bistatic radar, provides an introduction to the technology, covering information on basic principles and design. Starting with a detailed look at monostatic radar, examining the development of the field as a whole, the book then goes on to:
Bistatic Radars: Principles and Practice gives an up-to-date overview of this important technology for practising engineers and researchers involved in the design and implementation of bistatic radar in a range of industries. It is also a valuable reference for advanced students taking special courses in radar technology.
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