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Unit 1 Public Administration History 1

Public Administration and the American Republic: The Continuing Saga of Management and Administration in Politics 3

Lawrence F. Keller

Introduction 3

Administration, Politics, and History: Three Legacies of Republican Governance 5

The 1880s: Intimations and Foundations 8

The 1890s: Prelude Continued 9

The 1900s: Transformations in Practice 10

The 1910s: Reform Continued and Intensified 11

The 1920s: Maturation of the Public Interest Model 12

The 1930s: The Rise of the Administrative State 13

The 1940s: Reflection on the Administrative State 15

The 1950s: The Beginnings of Self-Awareness 17

The 1960s: Beyond Political Science 19

The 1970s: Identity Revisited, New Currents and Curriculum 21

The 1980s: Crosscurrents and a Return to Basics 24

Public Administration in the 1990s: Reshaping Management, Searching for Macro Legitimacy 28

Conclusion: Public Administration and the Search for Governance in a Global Security State 32

Dedication 35

References 35

Five Great Ideas in American Public Administration 49

Marc Holzer

Vache Gabrielyan

Kaifeng Yang

Introduction 49

Idea One: Honest, Neutral, Businesslike Government 59

Idea Two: Classic Management Models 64

Idea Three: Politics and Policy Making 68

Idea Four: Human Behavior 73

Idea Five: Program Effectiveness 77

Informational Factors 81

Constants: Demands for Productivity Improvement 81

Problems: Misperceptions 81

Opportunities: Information Sharing 82

Actions: Measurements of Performance 83

Social Factors 84

Constants: Cultural Differences 84

Problems: Bureaucratic Pathologies 85

Opportunities: Management-Workforce Cooperation 85

Actions: Motivational Incentives 86

Technological Factors 87

Constants: Priorities 87

Problems: Capital Underfunding 87

Opportunities: Technology Transfer 87

Actions: Technological Adaptations 87

Managerial Factors 88

Constants: Comprehensive Public Management 88

Problems: Procedural Rigidity and Privatization 89

Opportunities: Cooperative Partnerships 90

Actions: Competency 90

Conclusion 91

References 93

Unit 2 Organization Theory 103

Further Trends toward the Development of the Organizational Sciences 105

Robert T. Golembiewski

Six Trends and Topics 106

Simple and Sovereign Structure 106

Environmental and Technological Contingencies 107

Environmental Turbulence Versus Placidity 108

Generic Technologies 108

Environments and Technologies 109

Strategy = Structure Contingencies 109

Divisional Model 109

Structural Contingencies: Alternative Models 111

Analytic or Synthetic Treatments 112

Statistical Treatments 112

Clinical Treatments 113

Horizontal Approaches to Structuring Organizations 114

Organization Development and Change 115

ODC Values 115

ODC's Reach 115

ODC's Grasp 116

Guides for Empirical Analysis 116

Criteria for Empirical Development 116

Types of Theoretical Development 116

In-Process Conclusion 118

References 118

Five Great Issues in Organization Theory 121

Robert B. Denhardt

David L. Baker

Politics and Administration 121

Bureaucracy and Democracy 126

Organization and Management 129

Theory and Practice 134

Theories of Public Organization 140

References 142

Unit 3 Public Budgeting and Financial Management 149

The Field of Public Budgeting and Financial Management, 1789--2004 151

Carol W. Lewis

Introduction 153

Purpose 153

Chronological Approach 153

Federal Emphasis 153

Bibliographic Criteria 153

Context 159

Public Administration 159

Dynamism and Stability 159

Historical Antecedents 159

U.S. Constitution 159

Hamiltonian Perspective 159

Article I and Amendments 160

Treasury Department 161

Legislative Budgeting of the Nineteenth Century 161

Imposition of Subnational Debt Limits 161

Congressional Domination of Federal Budgeting 162

Appropriations Process 162

The Emergence of the Modern Era 163

Continuity and Disjuncture 163

Changing Role of Government 163

Shifts in Federal Budgeting 164

To Executive Budgeting in Slow Motion 164

Municipal Sources of Executive Budgeting 164

Taft Commission 165

Apportionment 165

Initial Steps toward Delegating Authority 166

Influence of Public Administration 166

The 1921 Reform 167

New Institutions 168

Institutional Issues 170

Executive Budgeting---Title II 170

Meaning of Budget Reform 171

Continuities 172

The Information Industry 172

OMB and GAO Data and Documents 172

Other Federal Sources 177

New Kinds of Information 178

State Information Producers 179

Nongovernmental Information Producers 179

Growth Industry 180

Perfecting the Prototype 181

Pursuing the Classical and Radical 181

Time Horizon 181

Second American Revolution 181

Accounting and Audit Standards 181

Brownlow Committee 182

The ``Key'' Question 182

Immediate Postwar Years 183

Incrementalists and Rationalists 184

Incrementalism 184

Debate over Theories 185

Rationalist Reforms 185

Control!---Accountability and Economy 188

Historical Perspective 188

Control-cum-Accountability 189

Control-cum-Economy 193

The 1974 Congressional Budget Act 197

Sources of Reform 197

Congressional Budget Process and Procedures 199

Reconciliation 203

The Gramm--Rudman--Hollings Act of 1985 203

Sources of Reform 203

Deficit Ceiling and Sequestration 204

Constitutional Issues 204

GRH II and III 207

The Budget Enforcement Acts of 1990 and 1997 207

The Elusive Balanced Budget 209

Resistance to Budget Reform 209

Political Significance 209

Constitutional Amendments 210

Line-Item Veto 211

The Death of Sacred Cows 212

Spending Cuts through Devolution: Block Grants 213

Budget Surplus and Its Disappearance 213

The Federal Budget Surplus of 1999--2001 213

What Happened to the Surplus? The Reemergence of Federal Budget Deficit 214

The Federal Budget and Homeland Security 215

Overview 215

Concluding Comments 216

References 217

Budget Theory: New Perspectives for a New Millennium 227

Howard A. Frank

Introduction 227

Classic Budgeting Theories 228

Incrementalism 228

Economic-Based Models 230

Models of Optimization: Budgeting at the Pigovian Margins 230

Public Choice 231

The Performance Measurement and Budgeting Paradigm: Budgeting Theory and Intelligent Suboptimization of Public Budgeting in the New Millenium 233

Do Real Performance Measures Require an External Referent or Standard to Be Valid? 236

Is It Realistic to Expect PM Systems to Be Integrated with Strategic Planning Efforts, Individual Performance Appraisals, and Budgetary Resource Allocation? 237

Who Is the Principal Beneficiary of PM Development---The Public, the Bureaucracy, or Elected Officials? 238

Building a PM Paradigm: Matching Appropriate Methodology to PM Implementation Design Questions 239

Budget Theory: New Directions and Reorientation 240

Budgeting as a Cultural Expression 240

Budget Format and Allocations as Independent Variables 242

Conclusion 243

References 244

Unit 4 Decision Making 249

Decision Making, Institutions, Elite Control, and Responsiveness in Public Administration History 251

Jonathan B. Justice

Gerald J. Miller

Introduction 252

Federalism and Separated Powers 256

The Federalists and the Governing Class 258

Jefferson 259

The Mid-Eighteenth Century 260

The Civil War and Reconstruction 262

The Era of Administrative Reform 265

Neutral Competence of Expertise 268

A Ruling Class 268

Business Expertise 268

Budget Reform 270

The Municipal Reform Movement 270

The State Reorganization Movement 271

The National Executive Budget Movement 271

The Rise of the Budget Idea 274

The 1921 Act 275

The Reform Movement as Institutionalized Values 277

Coalition Convergence and Divergence 278

Systems of Accountability as Sources of Divergence 278

Convergence on Institutions through Reorganization 279

Chester Barnard 280

Mary Parker Follett 281

World War II to the End of the Twentieth Century 283

The Dichotomy Updated: The Friedrich-Finer Debate 283

Efforts to Enhance Rationality 284

The Roots of Management Science: Administrative Behavior 284

Policy Analysis and Its Discontents 285

The Great Incrementalism Debate 287

Forms of Individual and Collective Irrationality 289

Organizational Decision Making 289

Multiple Streams in Policy Making 291

Framing 292

Public Choice Theory and the Irrationality of Politics 293

Individual Irrationality 294

The New Institutionalisms 296

Institutional Rational-Choice Frameworks 297

Social-Constructionist Approaches to Institutional Analysis 299

Summary 300

Contemporary Developments and Trends of the Early Twenty-First Century 301

Integrative Models of Decision 301

Technology-Facilitated Decision Making 302

Conclusion 304

References 305

Five Conceptual Tools for Decision-Making 315

Dennis P. Wittmer

Robert P. McGowan

Introduction 315

Decision Types 316

Decision-Making Styles and Processes 317

Five Major Contributions to Decision-Making 320

Supply Chain Management 320

Origins of Supply Chain Management 322

Practices and Applications 324

Future Trends and Implications 325

Knowledge Management 325

Definitions and Elements 326

Practices and Applications 327

Benefits, Challenges, Keys to Success, and Further Sources 328

e-Government 329

Existing Environment 329

Practices and Applications 330

Going Forward 331

Cost-Benefit Analysis 331

Origins 332

Applications 333

The Future of Cost-Benefit Analysis 334

Strategic Planning and Management 334

Definition and Essential Elements 335

Approaches to Strategic Planning 336

Conclusion 338

References 338

Unit 5 Public Personnel Management 343

Public Personnel and Labor Relations 345

N. Joseph Cayer

Introduction: Development of the Public Service 345

1789--1800: The Federalist Period 345

The Jeffersonians: 1801--1829 346

The Era of Spoils: 1829--1865 348

The Road to Reform: 1865--1883 349

The Civil Service System 350

Implementing Reform 351

Consolidation of Reform Principles 352

The 1930s: The Rise of Administrators 355

Big Government 357

Meeting Wartime and Peacetime Personnel Needs: The 1940s 357

Slowing Government Growth: The 1950s 359

Accountability, Equity and Justice: The 1960s 360

Retrenchment and Reform 362

Setting the Stage for Reform: The 1970s 362

More Retrenchment: The 1980s 364

The 1990s and Beyond: Reinvention, Reengineering, and Downsizing 366

Summary 369

References 370

Managing Public Personnel: A Turn-of-the-Century Perspective 381

Luther F. Carter

Kenneth D. Kitts

Introduction 381

The Establishment and Refinement of the Civil Service and Merit Concepts 382

The Development of the Human Relations and Workplace Quality Movements 387

Leadership, Motivation, and Productivity 388

Groups, Group Processes, and Organizational Environments 389

The Quality Workplace Movement 390

The Quest for Representativeness 391

The Growth of Bilateralism in the Public Sector 394

The Recognition of the Professional Public Administrator 396

Conclusion 398

References 398

Unit 6 Federalism and Intergovernmental Relations 405

Federalism, Intergovernmental Relations, and Intergovernmental Management: The Origins, Emergence, and Maturity of Three Concepts across Two Centuries of Organizing Power by Area and by Function 407

Deil S. Wright

Carl W. Stenberg

Introduction 408

Origins of Federalism 413

The Philadelphia Convention 413

Adoption of the Constitution 413

Framers' Intent, Meaning, and Orientation 414

Emergent Federalism 1790--1890 416

Nature of the Union 416

Politics 418

Administration and Resources 418

Mature Federalism 1890--1940 419

Constitutional Law 419

Politics and Party Realignment 420

Administration 422

Financial Resources 423

Funds for Financing Federal Aid 423

Growth in and Funding of Grant Programs 423

Legal Status of Grants 424

Administration of Grants 424

Federal Aid to Cities 425

Intergovernmental Relations (IGR): Origins and Emergence 1940--1960 427

Wartime and Postwar IGR 428

The 1950s: The Academic Decade 430

IGR: A Quarter Century of Maturation and Metamorphosis 1960--1985 432

Monitoring Maturation and Metamorphosis 432

1960--1965: Political Processes, Shared Functions, Changing Structure 434

1965--1970: Finances, the States, and Urban Affairs 436

1970--1975: Regionalism, Reorientation, and Implementation 439

1975--1980: Evaluation and Codification 441

The 1980s: Elaboration, Regulation, Retrenchment/Redirection, and Management 442

Intergovernmental Management (IGM): 1970s--2000s 445

The Meaning of IGM 445

The Origin and Emergence of IGM: The 1970s 448

IGM Evolution in the 1980s and 1990s: From Top-Down to Bottom-Up 449

IGM: Closing Observations 451

The Contemporary Scene: Conflicts and Cross-Currents 453

Basic Dimensions 453

Toward Contingent Collaboration: Four Examples 455

Mandates 455

No Child Left Behind 456

Homeland Security 457

Internet Taxation 458

The Administrative Dimension 460

References 462

Federalism and Intergovernmental Relations: Theories, Ideas, and Concepts 481

Dale Krane

Richard H. Leach

Constitutional Federalism 482

States' Rights Federalism 484

Administrative Federalism 486

Centralized Federalism 489

New Federalism 492

Evolving Federalism 494

Conclusion 497

References 498

Unit 7 Public Policy 501

Back to Square One: The History and Promise of the Policy Sciences 503

Peter deLeon

Danielle M. Vogenbeck

Introduction 504

Aspirations for Societally Relevant Knowledge 504

Policy Sciences in Western Civilization 505

American Pragmatism and Instrumentalism 506

Applied Social Science 507

Lasswell's Vision of the Policy Sciences: The Early Decades 509

Multidisciplinary Perspective 509

Contextual and Problem-Oriented Perspective 511

Policy Analysis 512

Policy Process 512

Explicitly Normative Perspective 514

Growth and Development of Policy Sciences: Through the 1970s 515

Expanding the Scope of the Policy Sciences 516

Evaluation 516

Utilization 517

Implementation 517

Termination 518

Summary 519

Political Events and the Policy Sciences 519

The War on Poverty 519

The Vietnam War 520

Watergate 521

The Energy Crises 522

The End of the Cold War 524

To Review 524

From Policy Science to Policy Inquiry: The 1990s and Beyond 524

Old Themes Revisited 525

Ethics and Values in the Policy Sciences 525

Public Policy and Public Management 527

New Directions Broached 529

Increasing Relevance and Application 529

From Policy Science to Policy Inquiry 530

Post-Positivism in the Policy Sciences 531

Social Network Analysis 532

Summary: Half a Century of Policy Sciences 533

References 534

The Policy Sciences in Critical Perspective 541

Matthew R. Auer

Introduction 541

Decision Process and the Stages Approach 542

The Linearity Critique 543

Public Expectations and the Policy Cycle 544

Decision Process as Top-Down and Legalistic 545

The Insufficient Comprehensiveness of the Decision Process 546

Decision Process and Causal Theory 550

Insights from Inside the Social Process 552

Political Myth as Policy Construct 552

Distinguishing Outcomes from Effects 553

Convergence in Problem-Oriented Research and Practice 554

Concluding Remarks 558

References 559

Unit 8 Comparative and International Relations 563

Comparative and International Administration 565

George M. Guess

Vache Gabrielyan

Introduction 565

Classicial Comparative Public Administration 566

Foreign Aid and Comparative Public Administration 566

The Functionalist Framework and Other Roadmaps 568

The New Comparative Administration 571

Public Choice and Institutional Economics 572

Back to Functionalism and Systems Analysis 576

Back to Political Culture 578

Civil Service Reform and Personnel Administration 580

Public Budgeting and Financing Management 582

Intergovernmental Relations and Local Government 584

Devolution of Functions to Lower Levels of Government and to Private Firms 585

Decentralization of Managerial Authority 588

Comparative Performance 589

New CPA Problems and Opportunities 590

From Reorganization to Government Reinvention 590

Comparative Management Information Systems 592

Summary and Conclusion 594

References 595

Issues in Comparative and International Administration 605

Ferrel Heady

Bruce Perlman

Mario Rivera

Comparative and International Perspectives 605

Historical Background 605

Comparative Administration 607

International Administration 607

Issues in Comparative and International Administration 608

Frameworks of Study 609

The Acquisition of Knowledge 612

Administrative Capabilities and Governance in the Less-Developed Countries 614

Administrative Capabilities of International Institutions and Agencies 615

Prospects for Transformation of a World System Dominated by Nation-States 618

Exploring Prospects for Interdisciplinary Convergence 620

Development Administration or Management: Integrative and Convergent Themes 621

The Outlines of an Emerging Research and Practitioner Consensus 622

Concluding Considerations on Performance Management Approaches to Development 624

References 626

Unit 9 Public Law 633

Administrative Law and Regulation 635

David H. Rosenbloom

Introduction 636

Overview: The Role of Administrative Law 636

What Is Administrative Law? 639

Regulatory Administration and Administrative Law 644

Administrative Penetration Today: A Schema 651

Administration to Create Surrogate Markets 651

Administration to Ensure the Proper Functioning of Markets 652

Administration to Ensure the Safety of Products and Services 652

Regulation to Ensure the Safety of New Technologies 653

Regulation to Protect the Environment 653

Regulation of Employment Processes 653

The Protection of Entitlements 654

Decade-by-Decade Analysis 1880s--2000s 654

1880s 654

1890s 657

1900s 658

1910s 661

1920s 662

1930s 663

1940s 665

Legislative or Substantive Rules 668

Interpretative Rules 669

Procedural Rules 669

1950s 672

1960s 674

1970s 676

1980s 680

1990s 682

Into the 2000s 685

Conclusion: The Big Question for Today's Public Administration 689

Cases 691

References 693

Five Great Issues in Public Law and Public Administration 697

Julia Beckett

The Legal Foundations of Public Administration 698

What Are the Constitutional Foundations of Government? 698

Is Public Administration Legitimate within the Direct Constitutional Text? 699

What Are the Legislative Sources of Authority for Public Policy and Public Administration? 700

How Do Constitutional Duties Affect Administrative Values? 702

The Role of the Courts 703

How Do Courts Interpret the Constitution? 703

Do Courts Interfere with Administration? 704

How Does Legal Reasoning of Courts Relate to Administrative Decision-Making? 705

Do Lawsuits Interfere with Administration? 706

What Are the Alternatives to Litigation? 706

The Development of Administrative Law 707

How Is Administrative Law Related to the Development of the Field of Public Administration? 707

What Does Administrative Law Mean Now and How Does It Affect Administrators? 709

The Extent of Regulation 710

Is There Too Much Red Tape? 711

How Are Rules and Regulations Used and Evaluated? 712

The Legal Influence on Administrative Practice 712

What Law Does an Administrator Need to Know? 713

How Does Law Contribute to a Robust Public Administration? 713

Conclusion 714

Cases 715

References 715

Unit 10 Public Administration Pedagogy 721

A History of Pedagogy in Public Administration 723

Eleanor V. Laudicina

Introduction 723

The Formative Years: 1880--1920 724

The 1920s: Emergence of Public Administration as a Separate Field of Study 726

The 1930s and 1940s: Education for the Administrative State 728

The 1950s: Decline and Fragmentation 731

The 1960s: Old Problems and New Directions 733

The 1970s: Renewal and Growth 735

The 1980s: Consolidation and Change 739

The Decade of the 1990s: Into a Strange New World 743

Education and the Challenges of a New Milennium 748

The Future of Education and Public Service in the New Millennium 749

References 750

Public Administration Pedagogy: What Is It? 757

Norma M. Riccucci

Introduction 757

The Genesis of Public Administration Education 758

Public Administration: Its Scope and Its Place 759

The Organizational Chart 759

Defining the Field 760

Teaching Public Administration 763

SPAE and JPAE 764

Conclusions 764

References 764

Unit 11 Information Technology 767

The Evolution of Information Technology in the Public Sector 769

James Melitski

Introduction: Data, Information, and Knowledge 769

Hardware Development 770

Application Development 771

Network Development 771

Implementing Appropriate Technology Efficiently and Ensuring Quality 775

Applied Information Technology in the Public Sector: e-Government 776

Linear e-Government Models 777

e-Government and e-Governance as Distinct Dimensions 778

Conclusion 779

References 779

Strategically Managing Information Technology: Challenges in the e-Gov Era 781

David Coursey

Introduction 781

e-Gov in Context: The Evolution of IT in Government 782

The Litany of Strategic Management Perspectives in Public IT 783

Challenges to e-Gov Strategic Management and Planning 786

Increased Attention of Political Officials 786

Publicity and Propaganda 787

Rushed Innovations and Projects---The Cult of Innovation Renewed 788

The CIO and Political Leadership Models of IT Centralized Control 789

Changing Vendor Roles and Increased Power 790

Preference for Political Leadership over Career Officials 791

Determining IT Directions 792

Favoring Centralization 792

Conclusion and Summary 793

Acknowledgments 794

References 795

Five Great Ideas in Public Information Technology Literature 797

Alexei Pavlichev

G. David Garson

Introduction 797

ICT Is Political 799

ICT Is an Engine of Organization Change 802

Flattening Organizational Structures 804

Interorganizational Networks 805

Change in the Degree of Public Employee Discretion 806

Deterritorialization 808

The Digital Divide 811

Public Information Technology Management Is Different from Private Sector IT Management 814

Summary 817

References 818

Unit 12 The Conduct of Inquiry 823

A History of the Conduct of Inquiry in Public Administration 825

Robert K. Whelan

The Era up to 1945 825

The Efforts of Municipal Research Bureaus and Rural Reformers 826

Development of Professional Organizations 827

The Influence of World War I 828

Social Science Research Council 828

Institute of Government Research and Brookings Institution 829

The New Deal 830

World War II 831

The Postwar Period, 1946--1960 833

The Case Study Method 833

The Introduction of Operations Research and Systems Analysis 834

Textbooks in the Field 834

The State of Public Administration Research 835

The 1960s 836

The Rise of PPBS 836

Urban and Regional Government Efforts 837

The 1970s 838

The Study of Urban Service Delivery 838

The More Systematic Use of Case Studies 838

Inquiry in Public Administration, 1980--2005 839

Critique of Research Methods in the Field 839

Concern with Governmental Performance 840

Recent Research Trends 842

Governance and Network Research 844

Research Paths/Scholarly Success 845

Qualitative Methods: Memoirs, Stories and Cases 845

Conclusion 846

References 846

Classic Methods in Public Administration Research 851

Samuel J. Yeager

Introduction 853

Case Studies 855

Critique 857

Defense and Extension 859

Quantitative Warts 859

An Impossible Burden 860

Objectives, Strengths, and Choice of Method 860

A Process for Case Research 862

Approaches to Case Analysis 863

Narrative 863

Questions and Answers 864

Explanatory 864

Case Cluster 865

Quantitative 865

Methodological Issues---Validity 865

Analysis of Evidence from Multiple Cases 866

Meta-Analysis of Cases 867

Conclusion 869

Interviews 870

Advantages of Interviewing 871

Disadvantages of Interviewing 872

Training Interviewers 872

Background Work 874

Who Should Conduct an Interview? 875

Interview Settings 877

Gaining Access 877

The Interview Process 878

Establishing Rapport 879

Neutrality and Rapport 879

Interview Formats 881

Types of Questions 881

The Need for Probes and Follow-Ups 882

Types of Probes or Follow-Up Questions 883

Sources of Error 884

Multiple Sessions 885

Sensitive Questions 885

Confrontation 885

Recording and Note-Taking 886

Unobtrusive Measures---Use of Archival Data 886

Archives 887

Public Records 887

Private Records 889

Problems with Archival Data 894

Remedies 896

Representativeness of Data 896

Adequacy of Data 896

Reliability of Data 897

Validity of Interpretation 897

Summary 899

Participant Observation 899

Characteristics of Participant Observation 900

History and Usage 900

Key Informants 902

Types of Data in Participant Observation 903

Ethnography 903

Roles of the Observer 904

Common Problems 904

Entry into the Research Setting 905

Pressures on Subjects 905

Involvement in the Research Setting 906

Establishing Rapport 906

Involvement, Rapport, and Language 907

Over-Involvement/Over-Rapport 907

Note-Taking and Recording Data 908

Potential Limitations of the Participant Observation Method 908

Causes of Inaccuracy 910

Remedies 912

Training 912

Balanced Subjects 913

Field Guides 913

Remaining Open-Minded 914

Field Coordinators 914

Pairs of Observers 914

How Does the Informant Know? 914

Agreement among Observers 915

Reflection 916

Commitment to Quality 916

Triangulation 916

Structured Observation 917

Secondary Analysis 918

Accuracy of Participant Observation 919

Survey Research 919

Nonresponse 920

Nonresponse Bias 921

Research on Improving Response to Mail Surveys 923

The Number of Contacts Including Follow-Up Contacts 924

Sponsorship 925

Nature of the Respondent Population 926

Salience 926

Incentives 927

Length 930

Anonymity/Confidentiality 931

Personalization 932

Postage 932

Deadlines 933

Types of Appeals 933

Reflections on Increasing Response Rates 933

Weighting 934

Internet and E-Mail Surveys 935

Summary 936

Conclusion 936

References 937

Unit 13 Judicial Administration 981

Judicial Administration: Modernizing the Third Branch 983

Steven W. Hays

James W. Douglas

Introduction: The Reform of Tradition 984

The Early History: Precursors to Pound 986

The Revolutionary Period to 1900 986

Judicial Administration Gets Its Start: 1900--1909 988

Pound's ABA Address: Judicial Administration Is Born 989

The Legal Profession's Role in Reform 990

The Reform Agenda Takes Shape 991

Allies Are Enlisted: 1910--1919 992

Judicial Administration Takes Hold: 1920--1929 994

The Model Judiciary Article of 1920 994

The Federal and State Responses 995

Research Activities 995

Further Refinements, Fewer Actions: 1930--1939 996

Judicial Administration Literature as Boosterism 996

Arthur T. Vanderbilt Boosts the Boosters 997

The Distracted Decade: 1940--1949 998

The Modern ERA Begins: 1950--1959 999

The Legal Grip Loosens 999

Professionalization Begins 1001

The Turbulent Decade: 1960--1969 1001

Developments in the Principles of Judicial Administration 1002

Institution Building 1002

The Reform Onslaught: 1970--1979 1003

Court Unification Spreads 1004

Management Reforms 1006

Maturation and Fine Tuning: The Late Twentieth and Early Twenty-First Centuries 1007

The Evaluative Literature: Questioning the Conventional Wisdom 1008

Defining Leadership Roles: 1980--1994 1011

Tinkering at the Margins: 1995--2005 1012

The Academic Component: Where Have All the Scholars Gone? 1012

Evaluating Traditional Structures and Practices 1014

Analyzing Innovations and Reform Efforts 1017

Conclusion 1020

References 1021

Five Great Issues in Judicial Administration 1029

James A. Gazell

Introduction 1029

Congestion and Delay 1032

Unification (or Centralization) 1036

Single-Tier Trial Court 1036

Judicial Councils (or Conferences) 1037

Court Administrator's Offices 1038

Judicial Assignment Authority 1038

Judicial Fiscal Consolidation 1039

Judicial Human Resources 1040

Professionalization 1040

Education and Training 1044

Technology 1049

Conclusion 1054

References 1055

Unit 14 Political Economy 1061

The Political Economy of Public Administration 1063

Fred Thompson

Introduction 1063

Public Administration Is Not Economics 1065

Public Administration Is Prescriptive 1065

Public Administration Is Realistic, Empirically Grounded, and Practical 1066

Public Administrators Are Preoccupied with Technical Efficiency 1067

The Renewal of Interest in Economics 1069

Political Science 1069

Changes in the Environment of Public Administration 1070

Advances in Economics 1072

Public Choice Theory 1073

The Median Voter and Bowen Equilibrium 1074

Lindahl Equilibrium 1075

Legislative Decision-Making 1076

Explaining Oversupply 1077

William Niskanen and the Budget Maximizing Bureaucrat 1079

Summing Up 1081

The New Macroeconomics 1081

The New Economics of Organization 1083

From the New Economics of Organization to Networks 1086

Final Thoughts 1091

References 1093

Some Developments in the Study of Market Choice, Public Choice, and Institutional Choice 1101

Vincent Ostrom

Introduction 1101

The Extreme Rational-Choice Model and Its Contributions 1102

Varying Assumptions in the Study of Market Relations 1104

Varying Assumptions in the Study of Nonmarket Arrangements 1108

Bureaucracies 1109

Constitutional Choice 1112

The People Problem 1114

Frameworks, Theories, and Models 1115

Summary and Conclusions 1116

Acknowledgments 1117

References 1117

Unit 15 Public Administration as a Profession 1123

The Public Administration Community and the Search for Professionalism 1125

John J. Gargan

Introduction: On the Concept of Profession 1126

Professions, Professionalism, and the Public Sector 1128

Professionals in and of Government 1129

Federal Employment (Including Professionals in Government) 1130

State--Local Employment (Including Professionals in Government) 1131

Assessing Professionals of Government 1132

The Evolution of Public Administration Professionalism 1133

Domains of Professional Activity 1134

Paradigm Generation 1134

Paradigm Translation and Advocacy 1135

Paradigm Implementation 1136

Public Administration as Paradigms in Effect 1137

Delineating the Boundaries of the Field: 1880--1910 1138

The Transformation of Public Administration: From Reform to Professionalism: 1910--193