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Preface xvii

About the Authors xxiii

PART I Conceptual Issues

An Integrating Framework for Human Behavior Theory and Social Work Practice 1

Introduction 2

Human Behavior Theory and Social Work Practice: A Historical Approach 2

The Roots of Modern Social Work Practice: A Person-in-Environment Focus 2

The Emergence of the Medical Model 5

Empowerment Perspectives: Integrating Group Work and Emphasizing Racial Justice and Social Change 5

The Diagnostic School and the Family Therapy Movement 6

Historical Division by Professional Fields and Methods of Practice 7

Reform Approaches 7

An Integrating Framework for Human Behavior Theory: The Foundation for Multi-Level Practice 8

The Social Systems Model 8

The Ecological Perspective 9

An Ecosystems Approach 10

Practice Example 1.1: A Hospital in Crisis 16

Analysis of Practice Example 1.1 from an Ecosystems Perspective 19

The Integrating Framework: Contemporary Perspectives 21

Developmental Contexualism: Assessing Risk and Protective Factors in the Context of Human Development 21

Community-Based Practice 22

Summary 23

Neurobiological Underpinnings of Human Development 24

Introduction 25

The Neuroanatomy of the Brain 25

Functions of the Limbic System 26

Functions of the Parts of the Brain 27

How Neurons Communicate with Each Other 27

Experiences and Gene Expression 29

Neurobehavioral Disorders 29

Autism 31

Practice Example 2.1: Jenny 32

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 32

Practice Example 2.2: Joseph 35

Asperger's Disorder 35

Practice Example 2.3: Susan 36

Dyslexia 36

Mental Retardation: 37

Practice Example 2.4: Jaimie 38

The Mood Disorders 38

Depression 38

Bipolar Disorder 41

Generalized Anxiety Disorder 42

Summary 43

PART II The Individual

Theories of Development 45

Introduction 46

Multicultural Theory 46

Psychodynamic Theory 47

Drive Theory 48

Brief Intensive Psychotherapy (BIP) 51

Ego Psychology 52

Object Relations Theory 58

Self Psychology 59

Cognitive Theory 60

Cognitive Specificity Hypothesis 61

Schemata 61

Cognitive Distortions 62

Treatment Agenda 62

Rating Scales 65

Behavioral Theory 65

Reinforcement 65

Social Skills Training 66

Assertiveness Training 66

Imagery-Based Techniques 66

Constructivism 66

Cognitive Behavioral Constructivist Theory 67

Narrative Therapy 68

Feminist Theory 69

Cultural Relational Theory 70

Mutual Empathy 70

Relationship Authenticity 70

Relationship Differentiation 71

Self-Empathy 71

Theories of Play Therapy 71

Relational Play Therapy 72

Cognitive Behavioral Play Therapy 72

Developmental Play Therapy 73

Summary 75

Identity Development 76

Introduction 77

Racial Identity Development 78

Practice Example 4.1: Cross-Racial Counseling Session 80

Black Identity Development 80

Biracial Identity Development 81

Ethnic Identity Development 84

White Identity Development 85

Gender Identity Development 87

Cognitive Development Theorists 88

Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Identity Development 89

Homosexual Identity Development 91

Lesbian and Gay Identity Development 92

Bisexual and Transgender Identity Development 95

Social Class Identity 96

Summary 101

PART III The Sociocultural Context of Human Development

The Family in Society 103

Introduction: The Family as a Societal Subsystem 104

The Contemporary Family 104

The Family Defined 104

The Inner Life of the Family System 106

The Family as a Social System 106

Family Structure 107

Interactional Processes in Families 110

Patterns of Communication in Families 114

Practice Example 5.1: Mrs A 115

The Family System over Time: Family Development, Stress, and Adaptation 116

Families in Context: Effects of Socioeconomic and Sociocultural Variables 119

Contextual Variations in Family Form 125

Summary 132

Group-Work Practice 133

Introduction 134

Definition of a Group 135

Group Norms and Group Roles 136

Leadership 137

Power and Authority 138

Role of the Group Leader 138

Co-Leadership 139

Pregroup Planning: Group Structure and Stages of Group Development 140

Group Structure 140

Social Context 140

Agency Context and Sponsorship 141

Need 142

Purpose 142

Composition 143

Practice Example 6.1: Treatment Group Contract 144

Structure 144

Content 145

Stages of Group Development and the Role of the Group Leader 146

Types of Groups 149

Task Groups 150

Practice Example 6.2: Interview Guide for Focus Groups 154

Treatment Groups 155

Self-Help Groups 158

Woman's Groups 159

Persons with Disabilities in Groups 159

Technology-Mediated Groups 160

Summary 160

Communities and Organizations 162

Introduction 163

Key Socio-Structural Concepts 163

Social Structure 163

Power, Oppression, and Patterns of Social Interaction 164

The Community Defined 165

Community Functions 166

Production-Distribution-Consumption 166

Socialization 166

Social Control 167

Social Participation 167

Mutual Support 167

Community Competence 167

Community Structure 168

Community Subsystems: Formal and Informal Structures 168

Formal Organizations: Bureaucracy and Scientific Management 168

Organizational Auspices 169

Rational and Nonrational Processes in Organizations 169

Informal Structures in Formal Organizations 170

Structural Linkages in Organizational Communities 170

The Changing Societal Context for Community Life 171

Structural Changes in the Economy 171

Demographic Changes 172

Technological Changes 172

Poverty 173

Changes in the Social Welfare System 173

Formal Organizations: Changing Paradigms 174

The Changing Character of Community Life: The Postmodern Community 175

Production-Distribution-Consumption 176

Socialization 176

Social Control 176

Social Participation 177

Mutuality 177

Contemporary Issues in Community Practice 178

Community-Based Practice: Building a Bridge Between Micro- and Macropractice 178

Practice Example 7.1: Community-Based Practice for Women with Chronic Mental Illness 180

Community Macropractice: Skills and Strategies 180

Community Building: An Integrated Approach 181

Social Justice and Contemporary Communities 183

Practice Example 7.2: Community Building for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, and Transgender Youth 183

Practice Example 7.3: The Black Family and the Black Church 186

Summary 187

Spiritual Development, by Carolyn Jacobs 188

Introduction 189

Definitions of Spirituality 190

Cultural Diversity and Spirituality 192

Feminist Spirituality 194

Family and Community 195

Spirituality and Life-Cycle Stages 196

Spiritual Assessment 198

Questions for a Religious Community 199

Personal Meanings Attached to Symbols, Rituals, Beliefs, and Divine Figures 199

Relationship to Religious Resources 200

FICA: A Spiritual Assessment 202

Summary 203

PART IV The Human Life Cycle

Infancy 204

Introduction 205

The Inherent Nature of the Infant 205

Sensory-Perceptual Capacities 205

Innate Motivational and Behavioral Systems 207

Temperament 208

Developmental Maturation in Infancy 210

Neurological Maturation 210

Attachment 212

Alternate Pathways for Attachment in Contemporary Life 221

Substitute Child Care 221

Adoption and Assisted Reproduction 221

Summary 222

Early Childhood: The Toddler and Early School Years 224

Introduction 225

Biological-Psychological Development 225

Neurological Development 225

Motor Development 226

Cognitive Development 226

Language Development 227

The Emerging Sense of Self 228

Sociocultural Development: A Transactional View 234

Peer Relationships and Play 235

Temperament 236

Disabilities 238

The Child-Rearing Environment 240

School Readiness and Later School Achievement 244

Summary 246

Middle Childhood 247

Introduction 248

Biological and Physical Development 249

Early Adulthood 294

Introduction 295

Biological and Psychological Development 296

Health and Safety 297

Fertility 297

Cognitive Functioning: Post-Formal Thought 297

Intelligence 298

Socio-Cultural Functioning: Development in Context 298

Changing Relationship with the Family of Origin 299

Forming Intimate Relationships: Marriage, Cohabitation, and Serial Monogamy 299

The Parenting Role 302

Entering the World of Work 303

Contextual Variations 306

Chemical Substance Abuse 306

Gay and Lesbian Young Adults: Coming Out 308

The Impact of Disability in Young Adulthood: Sexual and Reproductive Issues 309

Domestic Violence 310

Summary 311

Middle Adulthood 312

Introduction 313

Physiological Changes 313

Women 313

Men 314

Cognitive Functioning 315

Psychological Development 316

Midlife Crisis 317

Sociohistorical Context 318

Race and Culture 319

Intimate Relationships in Midlife 320

Divorce 320

Widowhood 320

Parenting in Midlife 321

Grandparenting in Midlife 322

Surrogate Grandparenting 323

Middle Life Adults and Aging Parents 324

Gender Differences in Midlife 325

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Midlife Development 327

Philosophical Issues 330

Work in the Middle Years 330

Summary 331

Older Adulthood 332

Ann Roy

Introduction: Trends and Concepts 333

The Biology of Aging 335

Poverty and Ethnicity 336

Health Care and Ethnicity 337

Rural Elders 338

Social-Psychological Perspectives on Late Adulthood Development 338

Stage Theory 338

Disengagement Theory 339

Activity Theory and Its Close Relative Continuity Theory 340

Social Construction Theory 340

Physical and Mental Health in Older Adults 341

Physical Health 341

Mental Health 342

The Frail Elderly 344

Contemporary Contexts 344

End of Life Issues 345

Long-Term Care 348

Elder Abuse 349

Retirement 351

Practice Example 15.1: Saving for Retirement: Advice from the Experts 353

Summary 354

Trauma and Development 355

Introduction 356

Types of Trauma 356

Acute Stress Disorder 356

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 357

Assessment of Trauma 357

Neurobiology of Trauma 357

Traumatic Memories 359

Trauma and Dissociation 360

Treatment of Trauma 361

Safety 362

Practice Example 16.1: Chris 362

Remembrance and Mourning 362

Practice Example 16.2: Chris 363

Reconnection 363

Practice Example 16.3: Chris 363

Trauma and Children 364

Trauma-Related Disturbances in Children 365

Child Maltreatment 365

Play Therapy in the Treatment of Traumatized Children 366

Practice Example 16.4: David 372

Trauma and Aging 372

Practice Example 16.5: Mrs P 373

Trauma and Culture 374

Practice Example 16.6: Mrs G 375

Cultural Countertransference 376

Racial Trauma 377

Practice Example 16.7: Mrs L 377

The Helpers 378

Summary 378

Chronic Illness and Disability 380

Introduction 381

Definition of Disability 381

Types of Disabilities 382

Progressive, Permanent Conditions 383

Constant or Permanent Conditions 386

Relapsing or Episodic Conditions 388

Psychiatric Disabilities 389

Disability Across the Life Cycle 391

Disability Culture 395

Disability and Diversity 396

Family Adjustment to Disability 397

The Family Systems Illness Model 397

Disabilities and Abuse of Woman 399

Sociological Aspects of Chronic Illness and Disability 400

Practice Example 17.1: Illustrative Reading---Chronic Illness and Disability, by Steven Bogatz 402

Summary 405

PART V Policy

Social Policy Through the Life Cycle, by Joyce E. Everett 406

Introduction 407

The Functions of Social Welfare: A System's Perspective 407

The Enduring Debate About Social Welfare 409

Scope of Social Welfare: Problem versus Population Focus 410

Social Welfare Programs Across the Life Cycle 416

Infancy, Early, and Middle Childhood 416

Adolescence 421

Early and Middle Adulthood 423

Older Adulthood 427

Summary 429

Appendix A. Genogram 431

Appendix B. Eco-Map 432

Appendix C. Social Network Map 433

Appendix D. Culturagram 434

Appendix E. Outline for a Group Proposal 435

Appendix F. Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups 436

Glossary 447

References 467

Author Index 517

Subject Index 528