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Preface xv
Fundamentals 1
Heat and Temperature 1
Specific Heat 3
Latent Heat 3
Change of State 5
Vapor 5
Gas and Vapor 5
Energy 5
Pressure 6
Partial Pressure 7
Heat Transfer 7
Scope of Refrigeration 8
The Compression System of Refrigeration 10
Evaporation 10
Pressure Cycle 14
Temperature Cycle 16
Heat Cycle 17
Liquid--Vapor Cycle 19
Standard Ton Conditions 21
Refrigerants: Physical and Refrigerating Properties 22
Requirements 22
Physical Properties 25
Critical Pressure 28
Historical Development of Refrigerants 29
Water 32
Ammonia 32
Halocarbons 34
Conditions Other Than Standard Ton 36
Changing Refrigerants 37
Handling Refrigerants 38
Refrigerant Cylinder Colors 39
Liquid Feed Devices or Expansion Valves 40
Function of the Expansion Valve 40
Hand Expansion Valve 41
Low-Side Float Valve 42
High-Side Float Valve 44
Capillary Tube 45
Automatic Expansion Valve 46
Thermostatic or Thermal Expansion Valve 48
Solid-State or Thermal-Electric Expansion Valve 54
Liquid Solenoid Valve with Electric Float 55
Liquid Solenoid Valve with Thermal Differential Sensor 56
Liquid Solenoid Valve with Variable-Capacitance Probe 57
Pneumatic High-Side Float 58
Evaporators 60
Requirements for Evaporators 60
Types of Evaporators 61
Flooded Evaporator 62
Dry Evaporator 64
Improved Designs 66
Convection and Forced-Draft Evaporators 67
Evaporator Feeds 69
Surge Drum 69
Recirculated or Overfeed System 70
Oil in Evaporators 71
Compressors 74
How a Compressor Works 74
Historical Development: Compressor Types 80
Construction Details 85
Other Types of Compressors 93
Compressor Sizes 103
Condensers 105
Requirements 105
Operation 105
Air-Cooled Condenser 106
Air- vs. Water-Cooled Condensers 108
Double-Pipe Water-Cooled Condenser 108
Shell-and-Tube Condenser 109
Shell-and-Coil Condenser 110
Water Supply; Cooling Towers 111
Evaporative Condenser 114
Flow Equipment 116
Liquid Receiver 116
Pipes and Piping 116
Hand Valves 119
Filters and Strainers 121
Driers and Dehydrators 122
Oil Traps 123
Automatic Purgers 124
Sight Glasses 125
Heat Exchangers 126
Electrical Controls and Control Valves 128
Backpressure Control 128
Temperature Control 130
High-Pressure and High-Temperature Cut-outs 131
Low-Oil Cut-out 131
Low-Water Cut-out 132
Float Switch 132
Control Applications 132
Solenoid Valve 133
Evaporator Pressure-Regulating Valve 135
Crankcase Pressure-Regulating Valve 136
Crankcase Heater 137
Check Valve 137
Water-Regulating Valve 137
Pressure-Relief Devices 138
Computers and Refrigeration 139
Energy Management 140
Lubrication 142
Oil Types 142
Requirements 143
Oil Foaming 143
Oil Selection 144
Defrosting 147
Defrost Cycle 147
Hot-Gas Defrost 147
Thermobank System 149
Water-Spray Defrost 149
Electric Heater Defrost 149
Defrost Controls 151
Brine Spray 151
Compressor Drives 154
Requirements 154
Electric Drive 154
Potential Relay 156
Contactor and Motor Starter 157
Variable-Frequency Drive 160
Steam Drive 161
Diesel or Gasoline Engine 161
Food Preservation 163
Natural Ripening and Enzyme Action 163
Bacteria and Molds 164
Other Changes 164
Cold Storage 165
Freezing 165
Operating 167
Maintaining Temperature 167
Economy 168
Safety 172
Automatic Refrigeration 178
General Maintenance 178
Servicing 181
Variations from Refrigeration Requirements 181
Food Storage Problems 189
Refrigerated Enclosures 191
Insulation 191
Moisture Proofing 196
Openings and Doors 197
Cabinet Construction 197
Tank and Pipe Insulation 198
Excessive Heat 198
Instruments and Meters 200
Stem Thermometer 200
Dial Thermometer 204
Recording Thermometer 205
Pressure Gage 205
Transducer 208
Thermocouple 208
Thermistor 208
Electric Instruments 208
Heat Calculations 210
Design Temperature 210
The k Factor 211
R Value 212
Usage Factor 214
Condensing Unit Sizing 215
The K Factor 215
Evaporator Sizing 216
Boxes Larger than 1500 Cubic Feet 219
Insulation Thickness 223
Condenser Calculation 223
Humidity in Refrigeration 229
Relative and Absolute Humidities 229
Humidity Measurement 230
Effect of Evaporator Temperature 234
Electronics and Humidity Measurement 236
Compressor Calculations I 237
Refrigerant Tables 237
Compressor Size 238
Compressor Horsepower 241
Complete Analysis of Expansion Valve and Evaporator 242
Pressure--Enthalpy Diagram 243
Sizing Compressors 245
Compressor Calculations II 252
Capacity Variation 252
Effect of Changing Suction Temperature 253
Effect of Changing Condensing Temperature 254
Detailed Standard Ton Conditions 254
Effect of Subcooling 256
Effect of Superheated Suction Vapor 257
Wet Compression 257
Changing Refrigerant 258
Heat Exchangers 260
Two-Stage Systems and Booster Systems 263
Cascade Systems 268
Refrigerant Lines and Pressure Drops 271
Effect of Pressure Drop 271
Calculating Velocity and Pressure Drop 273
Effect of Changing Flow Conditions 277
Brine in Refrigeration 282
Brine Chemistry 284
Corrosion Control 285
Brine Concentration 286
Congealing Tanks and Eutectic Plates 290
Liquid Cooling 292
Beverage Cooling Requirements 292
Water Coolers 292
Beer Coolers 295
Charged Water, Soda Water, and Seltzer 296
Milk Coolers 296
Brewery Refrigeration 297
Refrigeration in Wine Making 299
Complete Systems 301
Commercial Multiplexing 301
Cold Storage 305
Locker Plants 307
Air Conditioning 308
Heat Pumps 311
Ice Making 313
Carbon Dioxide---Dry Ice 318
Carbon Dioxide Refrigeration 318
Manufacture of Dry Ice 318
Advantages and Disadvantages of Dry Ice 320
Uses of Dry Ice 321
Altitude and Its Effects 323
Absorption Systems 327
Continuous Absorption System 328
Diffusion Absorption System 329
Refrigeration Codes 332
Appendix 334
Index 401
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