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List of Figures and Tables=ix
Acknowledgements=xi
Notes on Contributors=xii
1. Introduction / Theo Schiller ; Maija Setälä=1
Citizens' initiatives as a subject of research=1
The design of initiative institutions=6
The role of initiatives in democratic systems=9
Part I. Practices of Full-Scale Initiatives
2. Switzerland : Citizens' Initiatives as a Measure to Control the Political Agenda / Georg Lutz=17
Introduction=17
The historical background of direct democracy in Switzerland=18
Procedures for citizens' initiatives=20
The experience of initiatives : Topics, makers and consequences of initiatives=25
The overall political impact of initiatives=29
Conclusion=32
3. Initiatives in Liechtenstein : Safety Valve in a Complex System of Government / Wilfried Marxer=37
Historical and political background=37
Legal framework=38
Popular initiatives between 1921 and 2010=45
Concluding remarks : 'Safety valve' and 'emergency brake'=49
4. An Electoral Tactic? Citizens' Initiatives in Post-Soviet Latvia / Daunis Auers=53
Introduction=53
Bringing the Alps to the Baltic : Citizens' initiatives in inter-war Latvia=53
Citizens' initiative procedures in contemporary Latvia=55
The experience of citizens' initiatives=58
Conclusions : The political impact of citizens' initiatives in Latvia=65
Part II. Systems Mixing Different Types of Initiatives
5. Institutions of Citizens' Political Participation in Italy : Crooked Forms, Hindered Institutionalization / Pier Vincenzo Uleri=71
Introduction : Representative democracy and institutions of citizens' political participation=71
The historical and political background of citizens' initiatives=73
The procedures for making citizens' initiatives=75
The experience : Topics, makers and consequences=77
The political impact of abrogative initiatives=83
Concluding remarks : Who controls whom and what?=85
6. Initiative Instruments in Germany : Variations in Regional States / Theo Schiller=89
Historical background of direct democracy in Germany=89
Procedures for making citizens' initiatives=91
The experience of initiatives=100
Role and impact on the political system=107
7. Citizens' Initiatives in Hungary : An Additional Opportunity for Power-Sharing in an Extremely Majoritarian System / Zoltán Tibor Pállinger=113
The historical background of citizens' initiatives=113
The procedures for making citizens' initiatives=117
The experience of initiatives=121
The political impact of initiatives=130
8. Citizens' Initiatives in Lithuania : Initiative Institutions and Their Political Impact in a New Democracy / Algis Krupavičius=134
Introduction=134
The procedures for making citizens' initiatives=135
The experience of initiatives : Topics, makers and consequences of initiatives=139
Direct democracy and citizens' initiatives : Opportunities and constraints=148
9. If It Works, Fine, If Not, So What? Initiatives in Slovakia / Erik Láštic=152
Introduction=152
The historical and political background of citizens' initiative institutions=153
The procedures for making citizens' initiatives=157
The experience of initiatives : Topics, makers and consequences of initiatives=159
Conclusion=169
Part III. Practices of Agenda Initiatives
10. The Austrian Agenda Initiative : An Instrument Dominated by Opposition Parties / Karim Giese=175
Introduction=175
The historical and political background of the agenda initiative=176
The legal framework of the agenda initiative at the federal level=178
Legal framework of the agenda initiative at the state level=182
The experience of initiatives : Topics, initiators and consequences=184
The overall political impact of initiatives=189
11. The Spanish Agenda Initiative and the Reform of Its Legal Regime : A New Chance for Participatory Democracy? / Víctor Cuesta-López=193
The historical and political background of the Spanish popular initiative=193
Procedures for making citizens' initiatives=195
The popular initiative in the law-making process=202
The popular initiative in practice=203
Conclusion : The overall impact of the initiatives and some ideas for reform=209
12. Popular Initiatives in Poland : Citizens' Empowerment or Keeping Up Appearances? / Anna Rytel-Warzocha=212
The historical and political background of citizens' initiative institutions=212
The procedures for making citizens' initiatives=213
The experience of initiatives : Topics, makers and the consequences of initiatives=220
The overall political impact of initiatives=225
13. Transnational 'Babystep' : The European Citizens' Initiative / Bruno Kaufmann=228
Introduction=228
The historical background=229
The regulatory framework of the European Citizens' Initiative=233
The European Citizens' Initiative procedures=237
Conclusions=239
14. Comparative Findings / Theo Schiller ; Maija Setälä=243
The historical and political background of citizens' initiative institutions=243
The procedures for making citizens' initiatives=245
The experience of initiatives : Topics, makers and consequences of initiatives=251
Impact of initiative instruments on the overall development of political systems=255
Index=260
2.1. Classification of direct democratic institutions in Switzerland=20
2.2. Initiatives launched in Switzerland(1891-2010)=26
3.1. Number and success rate of different popular votes in Liechtenstein(1921-2010)=46
3.2. Initiatives in Liechtenstein(1921-2010)=47
4.1. Citizens' initiatives in Latvia(1991-2010)=59
5.1. Popular votes on state issues in Italy(1946-2010)=75
5.2. Abrogative requests, Constitutional Court and parliament in Italy(1970-2011)=77
5.3. Popular votes on abrogative requests in Italy(1970-2009)=79
5.4. Three periods of voting behaviour and turnout in Italy : Yes, no and non-vote(1970-2009)=82
6.1. Full-scale citizens' initiative : Requirement profiles of German states=97
6.2. Agenda initiatives(Volksinitiative) and full-scale citizens' initiatives in Germany―regulations(-2010)=98
6.3. Agenda initiatives and submissions of full citizens' initiatives in Germany―Practice(-2010)=102
6.4. Citizen-initiated popular votes in German states(1946-2010)=108
7.1. Referendums in Hungary(1989-2010)=115
7.2. 'Proper' agenda initiatives in Hungary(1989-2010)=122
8.1. Referendums in Lithuania(1990-2010)=141
8.2. Petitions and claims submitted to the Petitions' Commission of the Lithuanian Seimas(2001-2010)=147
9.1. Popular initiatives submitted to the president to call a referendum in Slovakia(1993-2010)=162
9.2. Agenda initiatives submitted to the parliament at the national level in Slovakia(1993-2010)=165
9.3. Agenda initiatives submitted to the government at the national level in Slovakia(1993-2010)=168
10.1. Results of admitted agenda initiatives in Austria since 1945(Second Republic)=185
11.1. Number of signatures required in Spain and in the Spanish autonomies=197
11.2. Total number of initiatives presented in Spain and annual average(1984-2007)=205
11.3. Types of issues proposed by popular initiatives in Spain(1984-2007)=206
11.4. Outcomes of popular initiatives in Spain(1984-2007)=208
12.1. Initiatives and treatment in parliament in Poland(1999-2009)=221
12.2. Types of issues proposed by popular initiatives in Poland(1999-2009)=222
14.1. The summary of the procedures and practices of citizens' initiatives at the national level(-2010)=248
2.1. Signature requirement for a citizens' initiative as a percentage of the citizens with voting rights in Switzerland=23
2.2. Number of votes in Switzerland(1848-2010)=26
2.3. Number of initiatives launched and failed signature collections in Switzerland(1891-2010)=29
11.1. The number of popular initiatives presented in Spain(1982-2007)=204
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