영문목차

Preface=xxxiii

Acknowledgments=xxxv

Editorial Notice=xxxix

The Constitution of the United States=xli

Biographical Notes on Selected U.S. Supreme Court Justices=lvii

The Supreme Court since 1789=lxxvii

I. The Constitution and the Supreme Court=1

A. Introduction : Creating a Constitution That Binds the Future=1

Note : Why(and How) Does the Constitution Bind?=2

B. The Origins of the U.S. Constitution=7

1. The Arguments over the New Constitution=9

The Federalist No. 10(Madison)=11

Note : Madisonian Republicanism=15

The Federalist No. 51(Madison)=18

Note : Madisonian Republicanism and Checks and Balances=21

Note : Madisonian Republicanism and Contemporary Constitutionalism=23

C. The Basic Framework=25

Marbury v. Madison=25

Note : Marbury v. Madison=32

Martin v. Hunter's Lessee=38

Note : Supreme Court Review of State Courts and State Laws=42

Note : Judicial Exclusivity in Constitutional Interpretation?=44

D. The Sources of Judicial Decisions : Text, "Representation-Reinforcement," and Natural Law=48

1. Text=48

District of Columbia v. Heller=48

Note : Text and "Original Public Meaning"=52

2. Structure and Improving Democratic Processes=53

McCulloch v. Maryland=53

Note : Constitutional Methodology and Interpretation in McCulloch=62

3. Natural Law and Natural Rights=65

Calder v. Bull=65

Note : Natural Law, Moral Argument, and the Supreme Court=67

E. The Power of Political Control over the Supreme Court=69

Note : Amendment, Appointment, Impeachment, and the Election Returns=70

Ex parte McCardle=75

Note : Political Control over Jurisdiction of Article III Courts=77

Note : The Power of Reprisal―General Thoughts=81

F. "Case or Controversy" Requirements and the Passive Virtues=82

1. Advisory Opinions=83

2. Standing=85

Allen v. Wright=85

Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife=89

Massachusetts v. EPA=97

Note : The Law of Standing=106

Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow=118

Note : Prudential Standing=120

3. Political Questions=121

Baker v. Carr=121

Note : The Bases for Finding a Political Question=126

Note : The Development of Standards for Reviewing Political Fairness=138

Vieth v. Jubelirer=139

Bush v. Gore=142

Note : Political Questions and Partisan Issues=149

4. Questions of Timing―Ripeness and Mootness=153

G. The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court=155

Note : Jurisdiction, Certorari, and the U.S. Supreme Court=155

II. Federalism at Work : Congress and the National Economy=159

A. The Values of Federalism and Some Techniques for Implementing Them=159

Note : A Government of Enumerated Powers=159

Note : The Values of Federalism=161

B. Doctrinal Fundamentals : Federalism and Judicial Review=165

Gibbons v. Ogden=165

Note : Gibbons v. Ogden=167

Hammer v. Dagenhart(The Child Labor Case)=169

Wickard v. Filbum=171

Note : Political Constraints versus Judicial Enforcement=172

C. The Evolution of Commerce Clause Doctrine : The Lessons(?) of History=179

United States v. E. C. Knight Co.=180

Houston, East & West Texas Railway v. United States(The Shreveport Rate Cases)=181

Note : Direct, Indirect, and Stream of Commerce Tests=182

Champion v. Ames(The Lottery Case)=183

Note : Prohibiting Interstate Transportation―Proper Regulation or Improper Pretext?=185

Note : The New Deal Crisis=185

A. L. A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States=186

Carter v. Carter Coal Co.=188

Note : New Deal Legislation and Commerce Clause Tests in the 1930s=191

NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.=193

United States v. Darby=196

Note : The New Deal Legacy=198

Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States=199

Katzenbach v. McClung=200

Note : Federalism and Congressional Motivation=202

United States v. Lopez=203

United States v. Morrison=212

Note : Federalism after the New Deal=214

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius=218

Note : Activity and Inactivity=239

Note : Observations on Court-Imposed Limitations on Congress's Powers=239

D. State Regulation of Interstate Commerce=240

1. The Fundamental Framework=240

Note : The Classical View=240

Note : The Modern View=242

2. Protection against Discrimination=246

Note : General Considerations=246

City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey=247

Note : Facial/Intentional Discrimination=249

C & A Carbone, Inc. v. Clarkstown=251

Note : Geographic Discrimination=255

West Lynn Creamery, Inc. v. Healy=258

Note : The Alternative of Subsidies=260

Note : Other Doctrines Concerning Discrimination=260

Note : Concluding Observations=264

3. Facially Neutral Statutes with Significant Effects on Interstate Commerce=264

Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Commission=266

Note : Inferring Intent from Effect=267

Exxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland=269

Note : Facially Neutral Statutes with(Merely?) Disproportionate Effects for Commercial or Social Purposes=272

Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp.=273

Note : Facially Neutral Statutes with(Merely?) Disproportionate Effects for Police Power Purposes=279

Note : Taxation of Interstate Commerce=281

E. Preemption=283

Arizona v. United States=283

Notes on Preemption=288

Note : Concluding Observations=291

III. The Scope of Congress's Powers : Taxing and Spending, War Powers, Individual Rights, and State Autonomy=293

A. Regulation through Taxing, Spending, and the War Power=294

1. The Taxing Power=294

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius=296

Note : NFIB's Discussion of the Taxing Power=301

2. The Spending Power=301

United States v. Butler=301

Note : The Spending Power and Dual Federalism=306

Steward Machine Co. v. Davis=306

Note : Conditional Spending, Coercion, and the Political Process=309

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius=310

Note : Conditions and Coercion=320

3. The "War" Power=322

Note : Individual Rights and the War Power=324

B. Congress's Enforcement Power under the Reconstruction Amendments=325

Note : Possible Interpretations of the Section 5 Power=326

Katzenbach v. Morgan=327

Note : The Scope of Section 5=329

City of Boerne v. Flores=331

Note : The Roles of Court and Congress=334

Note : The Interaction of Congressional Enforcement Power and the Eleventh Amendment=336

Board of Trustees v. Garrett=338

Note : Congressional Power to Abrogate States' Sovereign Immunity=339

Note : Congressional Power to Regulate "Private" Action for Civil Rights Purposes=344

C. The Tenth Amendment as a Federalism-Based Limitation on Congressional Power=346

Missouri v. Holland=347

Note : Federalism and the Treaty Power=348

Note : The Modern Revival of Tenth Amendment-Based Restraints on Federal Regulation of State and Local Governments=351

Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority=352

Note : From Garcia to New York v. United States=353

New York v. United States=354

Printz v. United States=356

Note : The "Anticommandeering" Principle=358

Note : Concluding Observations on Congress's Powers=365

IV. The Distribution of National Powers=367

A. Introduction=367

The Federalist No. 47(Madison)=367

The Federalist No. 48(Madison)=368

Note : The Theory of Separation and Checks and Balances=368

B. Case Study : Presidential Seizure=370

Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer(The Steel Seizure Case)=370

Note : Youngstown and the Power of the President=378

Note : The Relevance of Foreign Law=380

C. Foreign Affairs=382

1. Executive Authority=382

United States v. Curtiss-Wright Corp.=382

Dames & Moore v. Regan=384

Medellin v. Texas=386

Note : The President and Foreign Affairs=388

Note : The Allocation of Warmaking Authority=389

Note : The "War on Terror" and the Second Gulf War=390

Hamdi v. Rumsfeld=392

Note : The Interplay between the President, Congress, and the Court with Regard to the "War on Terror"=400

Note : Some Unanswered Questions=403

2. Legislative Authority=406

Note : The War Powers Resolution=406

Note : Congressional Control over Agreements with Foreign States―Treaties, Executive Agreements, and Congressional-Executive Agreements=409

D. Domestic Affairs=411

1. Executive Authority=411

United States v. Nixon=412

Note : Executive Privilege and Presidential Immunity=416

Note : The Politics of Impeachment=420

Note : The "Law" of Impeachment=421

2. Legislative Authority=424

Note : The Nondelegation Doctrine and "Quasi-Constitutional" Statutes=424

INS v. Chadha=429

Note : The Legislative Veto=434

Note : Where Do Administrative Agencies "Fit" in the Separation of Powers Scheme?=435

Bowsher v. Synar=441

Morrison v. Olson=441

Note : Congressional Control over Administrative Officials=448

Note : Distribution of National Powers―Final Thoughts=451

V. Equality and the Constitution=453

A. Slavery, Jim Crow, and the Equal Protection Principle=453

1. Slavery and the Constitution=454

State v. Post=455

Note : The Constitutionality of Slavery=457

Dred Scott v. Sandford=459

Note : Dred Scott and the Power of Judicial Review=461

2. Reconstruction and Retreat=463

Note : The Work of the Reconstruction Congress=463

Note : The Judicial Reaction=465

Plessy v. Ferguson=468

Note : Separate but Equal=471

3. The Attack on Jim Crow=472

Note : The Road to Brown=473

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka(Brown I)=476

Note : Justifications and Explanations for Brown=478

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka(Brown II)=482

Note : "All Deliberate Speed"=484

4. The Meaning of Brown=485

Note : The Initial Response to Brown=485

Note : The De Jure/De Facto Distinction and Limits on Courts' Remedial Powers=489

B. Equal Protection Methodology : Rational Basis Review=497

New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer=498

Note : Equal Treatment and Relevant Differences=501

Note : Limitations on Permissible Government Purposes=503

U.S. Department of Agriculture v. Moreno=504

City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center=505

Romer v. Evans=506

Note : "Actual Purpose" Review=508

Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Co.=509

Note : The Means-Ends Nexus=513

Railway Express Agency v. New York=516

Williamson v. Lee Optical=517

C. Equal Protection Methodology : Heightened Scrutiny and the Problem of Race=520

1. The Origins and Rationale for Heightened Scrutiny in Race-Specific Classifications That Disadvantage Racial Minorities=521

Strauder v. West Virginia=521

Korematsu v. United States=523

Loving v. Virginia=527

Note : Doctrinal Evolution in the Scrutiny Applied to Racial Classifications=528

Note : Justifications for Strict Scrutiny of Racial Classifications=530

Note : The Structure of Strict Scrutiny=535

2. Facially Nonracial Classifications That Disadvantage Racial Minorities : When Does Heightened Scrutiny Apply?=540

Washington v. Davis=540

Note : Rational Basis Review of Non-Race-Specific Classifications=542

Note : What Constitutes a Racially Motivated Classification? : Questions of Discriminatory Purpose=544

Note : Distinctive Problems in the Administration of Criminal Justice=551

McCleskey v. Kemp=554

Note : Racial Disparities in Investigating, Charging, and Sentencing=559

3. Race-Specific Classifications Designed to Benefit Racial Minorities=562

Note : The Imposition of Strict Scrutiny=562

Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena=567

Note : The Constitutionality of "Benign" Racial Classifications=574

Grutter v. Bollinger=580

Note : The Contemporary Application of Strict Scrutiny=591

Gratz v. Bollinger=595

Note : The Special Problem of Facially Neutral but Race-Specific Voting Districts=599

Note : The "Special" Case of Indigenous People=605

Note : A Comparative Perspective=606

4. The Synthesis of Brown and Affirmative Action=608

Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1=608

Note : Parents Involved and the Synthesis of Equal Protection Law=624

D. Equal Protection Methodology : Heightened Scrutiny and the Problem of Gender=629

1. The Early Cases=629

2. The Road to Intermediate Scrutiny=631

Reed v. Reed=631

Frontiero v. Richardson=631

Note : From Reed to Craig v. Boren―Evolution and Doctrinal Confusion=633

Craig v. Boren=637

Note : Heightened Scrutiny for Gender Classifications?=642

3. Archaic and Overbroad Generalizations versus "Real" Differences=647

United States v. Virginia=647

Note : "Real Differences" and Formal Equality=654

Nguyen v. Immigration & Naturalization Service=658

Note : The Relevance of "Real Differences"=662

Note : Gender Discrimination as a Two-Edged Sword=666

Califano v. Goldfarb=667

Califano v. Webster=669

Note : The Problem of "Benign" Gender Classifications=670

Note : Sex Discrimination Law and Constitutional Evolution=671

E. Equal Protection Methodology : The Problem of Sexual Orientation=673

Note : The Nature of the Class at Issue=673

Romer v. Evans=675

Note : The Meaning of Romer=683

Note : The Standard of Review=685

F. Equal Protection Methodology : Other Candidates for Heightened Scrutiny=696

1. Alienage=696

Sugannan v. Dougall=697

Note : Strict Scrutiny for Classifications Based on Alienage―Defining the Political Community=700

Note : Alienage and Federal Preemption=703

2. Wealth Classifications=707

Note : Defining the Class=707

Note : Wealth Discrimination and the Problem of Affirmative Rights=709

3. Other Disadvantaged Groups=714

City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center=714

Note : Evaluating the Claims of Other Disadvantaged Groups=716

VI. Implied Fundamental Rights=721

A. Introduction=721

Note : Theories of Constitutional Interpretation―"Originalism" and Its Critics=722

B. The Privileges or Immunities Clause=729

The Slaughter-House Cases=730

Note : The Demise of the Privileges or Immunities Clause=735

C. The Due Process Clause and the Incorporation Controversy=739

Note : Due Process and Incorporation=739

McDonald v. City of Chicago=741

D. Substantive Due Process : The Protection of Economic Interests and the Question of Redistribution=750

Note : The Road to Lochner=750

Lochner v. New York=753

Note : The(Alleged?) Vices of Lochner=758

Note : The Lochner Era, 1905-1934=764

Nebbia v. New York=766

West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish=767

Note : The Context of West Coast Hotel and the 1930s Political and Economic Climate=768

Note : The End of an Era=769

United States v. Carolene Products Co.=770

Williamson v. Lee Optical of Oklahoma=771

Ferguson v. Skrupa=772

Note : Pluralism, Naked Wealth Transfers, and the Courts=773

E. Fundamental Interests and the Equal Protection Clause=776

Skinner v. Oklahoma=776

Note : The Fundamental "Right to Have Offspring"=778

1. Voting=780

a. Denial of the "Right to Vote"=780

Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections=781

Note : Is the Right to Vote "Fundamental"?=782

Kramer v. Union Free School District=784

Note : Kramer and Its Progeny=785

b. Dilution of the "Right to Vote"=788

Reynolds v. Sims=789

Note : Reynolds and Its Progeny=792

City of Mobile v. Bolden=795

Note : Vote Dilution and the Interests of Groups=799

c. Denial of "Access to the Ballot"=803

Williams v. Rhodes=803

Note : Williams and Its Progeny=804

2. Access to the Judicial Process=807

Griffin v. Illinois=807

Douglas v. California=807

Note : Fundamental Interests and the Criminal Justice System=808

Boddie v. Connecticut=812

Note : Access to the Judicial Process in Civil Cases=813

3. Travel=814

Shapiro v. Thompson=814

Saenz v. Roe=818

Note : The Right to Travel as a "Fundamental Interest"=819

Note : "Penalizing" the Right to Travel=820

4. Welfare=824

Dandridge v. Williams=825

Note : Dandridge and the Judicial Role in the Welfare Context=826

5. Education=828

San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez=828

Note : The Rodriguez Formulation=834

Plyler v. Doe=835

Note : Plyler and the Equal Protection Clause=840

F. Modern Substantive Due Process : Privacy, Personhood, and Family=841

1. The Right of Privacy=842

Griswold v. Connecticut=842

Note : Griswold and the Right of Privacy=850

2. Abortion=854

Roe v. Wade=854

Note : The Abortion Decision=859

Maher v. Roe=866

Harris v. McRae=868

Note : The Abortion-Funding Cases=869

Note : Abortion Regulation between Roe and Casey=870

Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey=873

Note : Casey and the Role of the Court=892

Gonzales v. Carhart=893

Note : The Future of Abortion Rights=907

3. Family and Other "Privacy" Interests=909

Moore v. City of East Cleveland=909

Note : Family and Association=910

Zablocki v. Redhail=913

Note : Families, Marriage, and Tradition=915

Note : Intimate and Cultural Association=920

Bowers v. Hardwick=921

Lawrence v. Texas=922

Note : Homosexuality, Sexual Liberty, and Substantive Due Process=932

Note : Same-Sex Marriage=934

4. The Right to Die=937

Cwzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health=937

Note : The Right to Die=943

Washington v. Glucksberg=944

Note : Assisted Suicide=951

Note : Liberty, Property, and Substantive Due Process=951

G. Procedural Due Process=953

1. Liberty and Property Interests=953

Board of Regents of State Colleges v. Roth=954

Perry v. Sindermann=955

Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill=956

Note : Defining "Liberty" and "Property"=958

Note : Statutory Entitlements, Property, and Natural Liberty=959

2. What Process Is Due=962

Mathews v. Eldridge=962

Note : Balancing Tests and the Due Process Clause=966

Note : Procedural Due Process and "Legislative" Determinations=972

H. The Contracts and Takings Clauses=973

1. The Contracts Clause=973

Note : Early Interpretive Problems=973

Home Building & Loan Association v. Blaisdell=976

Note : Market Ordering and Constitutional Interpretation=979

United States Trust Co. v. New Jersey=980

Allied Structural Steel Co. v. Spannaus=982

Note : United States Trust, Spannaus, and the Nonrevival of the Contracts Clause=984

2. The Eminent Domain Clause=986

Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff=986

Note : The Public Use Requirement and the Takings Clause=988

Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon=991

Miller v. Schoene=993

Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City=995

Keystone Bituminous Coal Association v. DeBenedictis=1000

Note : "Takings" and the Police Power=1001

Note : Penn Central, Keystone, Takings, and Related Problems=1004

Nollan v. California Coastal Commission=1008

Note : Nollan, Unconstitutional Conditions, and Other Problems=1010

Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council=1013

Note : Lucas, the Environment, and Regulatory Takings=1020

Palazzolo v. Rhode Island=1022

Note : Palazzolo―Final Thoughts=1026

VII. Freedom of Expression=1027

A. Introduction=1027

Note : The History of Free Expression=1027

Note : The Philosophy of Free Expression=1032

Note : Organization=1037

B. Content-Based Restrictions : Dangerous Ideas and Information=1038

1. Speech That "Causes" Unlawful Conduct=1038

Shaffer v. United States=1039

Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten=1040

Schenck v. United States=1043

Note : Shaffer, Masses, and Schenck=1044

Frohwerk v. United States=1047

Debs v. United States=1047

Abrams v. United States=1048

Note : Abrams and the Emergence of the Holmes-Brandeis Tradition=1051

Gitlow v. New York=1053

Note : "Abstract Doctrine" versus "Urging to Action"=1056

Whitney v. California=1057

Note : The Brandeis Concurrence and the Road to Dennis=1060

Dennis v. United States=1062

Note : Dennis and the Communist "Conspiracy"=1067

Note : The Road to Brandenburg=1070

Brandenburg v. Ohio=1072

Note : The Brandenburg Formulation=1074

Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project=1076

Note : Abridgment of Speech Other Than by Direct Criminal Prohibition=1078

2. Speech That Provokes a Hostile Audience Reaction=1083

Terminiello v. Chicago=1083

Cantwell v. Connecticut=1084

Feiner v. New York=1085

Note : The Search for Mechanisms of Control=1088

Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire=1091

Note : Fighting Words=1093

Note : The Skokie Controversy=1096

Snyder v. Phelps=1098

3. Classified Information=1100

New York Times Co. v. United States ; United States v. Washington Post Co.=1100

Note : The Pentagon Papers Controversy=1108

Note : The Progressive Controversy=1112

Note : The WikiLeaks Controversy=1114

Note : Dangerous Ideas and Information―Final Thoughts=1115

C. Overbreadth, Vagueness, and Prior Restraint=1116

1. Overbreadth and Vagueness=1116

Gooding v. Wilson=1116

Note : Overbreadth=1119

Note : Vagueness=1122

2. Prior Restraint=1124

Lovell v. Griffin=1125

Note : Licensing as Prior Restraint=1126

Near v. Minnesota=1129

Note : Injunction as Prior Restraint=1131

D. Content-Based Restrictions : "Low" Value=1134

1. False Statements of Fact=1135

New York Times v. Sullivan=1135

Note : "The Central Meaning" of New York Times v. Sullivan=1140

Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts ; Associated Press v. Walker=1143

Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.=1144

Note : Public and Private Figures, Public and Private Speech=1146

Dun & Bradstreet v. Greenmoss Builders=1148

Note : Other False Statements of Fact=1148

United States v. Alvarez=1149

Hustler Magazine v. Falwell=1153

2. "Nonnewsworthy" Disclosures of "Private" Information=1155

Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn=1155

Note : Invasion of Privacy and the First Amendment=1158

3. Threats=1161

Bridges v. California=1161

Watts v. United States=1162

Planned Parenthood v. American Coalition of Life Activists=1163

4. Commercial Advertising=1165

Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council=1166

Note : Virginia Pharmacy and "the Free Flow of Commercial Information"=1172

Note : Truthful, Nondeceptive Commercial Advertising after Virginia Phannacy=1174

Central Hudson Gas v. Public Service Commission of New York=1175

Note : Truthful, Nondeceptive Commercial Advertising=1176

Note : Other Regulations of Commercial Advertising=1180

5. Obscenity=1183

Roth v. United States ; Alberts v. California=1184

Note : Obscenity and Free Expression=1185

Note : Developments in the Law of "Obscenity"―1957-1973=1189

Miller v. California=1192

Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton=1195

Note : The 1973 Reformulation and Its Aftermath=1198

6. Child Pornography, Animal Cruelty, and Violent Expression=1201

New York v. Ferber=1201

Ashcroft v. The Free Speech Coalition=1203

Note : Child Pornography=1206

United States v. Stevens=1208

Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association=1211

7. The Lewd, the Profane, and the Indecent=1214

Cohen v. California=1215

Note : Profanity, Cohen, and the Captive Audience=1218

Erznoznik v. Jacksonville=1221

FCC v. Pacifica Foundation=1222

Note : Fleeting Expletives=1224

Sable Communications, Inc. v. FCC=1225

Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union=1226

Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union=1227

Note : "Indecent" Expression=1229

Note : Zoning Theaters with Adult Movies and Bars with Nude Dancing=1232

8. Hate Speech and Pornography=1236

Beauharnais v. Illinois=1236

Note : Group Defamation and "Hate Speech"=1239

R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul=1243

Wisconsin v. Mitchell=1248

Note : R.A.V. and Mitchell=1248

Virginia v. Black=1251

Note : R.A.V. and Black=1258

Note : Pornography and the Victimization of Women=1259

Note : "Low" Value Speech―Final Thoughts=1262

E. Content-Neutral Restrictions : Limitations on the Means of Communication and the Problem of Content-Neutrality=1263

1. General Principles=1264

Schneider v. State=1264

Martin v. City of Struthers=1265

Kovacs v. Cooper=1266

Metromedia, Inc. v. San Diego=1266

City of Ladue v. Gilleo=1267

Bartnicki v. Vopper=1268

Note : The Search for Principles=1270

Note : The Meaning of "Content-Neutrality"=1271

2. Speech on Public Property : The Public Forum=1274

a. The Public Forum : Streets and Parks=1275

Commonwealth v. Davis=1275

Hague v. CIO=1276

Schneider v. State=1277

Note : Regulating the Public Forum=1278

Note : Devices for Regulating the Public Forum=1282

b. The Public Forum : Other Publicly Owned Property=1285

Adderley v. Florida=1285

Note : "No Less Than a Private Owner of Property"?=1287

International Society for Krishna Consciousness v. Lee=1291

Note : Modern Public Forum Doctrine=1293

Note : The Right to a "Private" Forum=1294

c. The Public Forum : Unequal Access and the Problem of Content-Neutrality=1296

Police Department of Chicago v. Mosley=1296

Note : Mosley and the "Equality" of Ideas=1298

Lehman v. City of Shaker Heights=1300

Note : Lehman and the Limits of Mosley=1304

Perry Educators' Association v. Perry Local Educators' Association=1305

Note : Quintessential, Designated, and Nonpublic Forums=1307

Note : Religious Expression and the Meaning of "Viewpoint Neutrality"=1311

Christian Legal Society Chapter v. Martinez=1314

d. Unequal Access and the Problem of Government Speech=1317

Southeastern Promotions v. Conrad=1317

Board of Education, Island Trees Union Free School District v. Pico=1319

Regan v. Taxation with Representation of Washington=1321

Rust v. Sullivan=1322

Note : The Implications of Rust=1324

National Endowment for the Arts v. Finley=1326

Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez=1329

Note : The Reach of Government Speech=1332

3. Symbolic Conduct=1337

United States v. O'Brien=1338

Note : Draft Card Burning and the First Amendment=1342

Note : Flag Desecration and Misuse=1348

Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc.=1353

City of Erie v. Pap's A.M.=1355

Note : Other Forms of Symbolic Speech=1357

4. Regulation of Political Solicitation, Contribution, Expenditure, and Activity=1359

Buckley v. Valeo=1359

Note : Buckley and the Problem of Abridging Speech to "Enhance" the Electoral Process=1367

Note : Subsidy and Disclosure=1370

Note : Contribution Limits, PACs, and Political Parties=1374

McConnell v. Federal Election Commission=1375

Davis v. Federal Election Commission=1378

Arizona Free Enterprise Club's Freedom Club PAC v. Bennett=1378

Note : Corporate Contributions and Expenditures=1381

Citizens United v. Federal Elections Commission=1385

Note : Reflections on Citizens United=1397

Note : Additional Regulation of the Electoral Process=1400

Note : Regulation the Political Activities of Public Employees=1402

5. Other Means of Expression : Litigation, Association, and the Right Not to Speak=1405

NAACP v. Button=1405

Note : Litigation and the First Amendment=1406

NAACP v. Alabama=1408

Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees=1409

Note : Association and the First Amendment=1410

Boy Scouts of America v. Dale=1411

Note : The Meaning of Dale=1414

PruneYard Shopping Center v. Robins=1415

Note : Compelled Affirmation, Expression, and Association : The Right Not to Speak=1415

Note : Content-Neutral Restrictions―Final Thoughts=1419

F. Freedom of the Press=1420

1. A "Preferred" Status for the Press?=1420

2. A Right to "Gather" News?=1421

Branzburg v. Hayes=1421

Note : A Right to Gather News?=1425

Note : A Press Right of Access to Information?=1427

Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia=1429

Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court=1431

Note : Variations on the Press Right of Access=1432

3. Differential Treatment of the Press=1433

Minneapolis Star & Tribune Co. v. Minnesota Commissioner of Revenue=1433

Note : Differential Treatment=1436

4. Regulating the Press to "Improve" the Marketplace of Ideas=1437

Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo=1437

Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC=1438

Note : Regulating the Airwaves=1440

Turner Broadcasting System Inc. v. FCC=1444

Note : Turner and the Regulation of Cable=1447

Note : The First Amendment in Cyberspace=1447

Note : Free Expression―Final Thoughts=1451

VIII. The Constitution and Religion=1453

A. Introduction : Historical and Analytical Overview=1453

Everson v. Board of Education=1453

Note : The History of the Religion Clauses=1455

Note : General Approaches to the Religion Clauses=1462

Note : Defining Religion=1467

B. The Establishment Clause=1470

1. The Anticoercion Principle=1471

Lee. v. Weisman=1471

Note : The Anticoercion Principle=1479

2. The Nonendorsement Principle and De Facto Establishments=1482

Lynch v. Donnelly=1482

Note : The Nonendorsement Principle=1488

3. Impermissible Purposes : The School Prayer Cases=1496

Note : Problems with a "Purpose" Test=1496

4. Facially Neutral Statutes That Incidentally Aid Religion : Permissible and Impermissible Effects=1502

Note : The Problem and Its Background=1502

Mueller v. Allen=1504

Note : From Aguilar to Mitchell=1508

Zelman v. Simmons-Harris=1513

Note : Purpose and Effect in Aid to Nonpublic Education―Benevolent Neutrality?=1515

Note : Concluding Observations=1520

C. The Free Exercise Clause : Required Accommodations=1521

Note : From Reynolds to Smith=1521

Braunfeld v. Brown=1522

Sherbert v. Verner=1522

Wisconsin v. Yoder=1523

Note : Problems of Mandatory Accommodation=1525

Employment Division, Department of Human Resources v. Smith=1528

Note : Should Accommodation Be Required?=1536

D. Permissible Accommodation=1538

Corporation of Presiding Bishop of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints v. Amos=1539

Texas Monthly v. Bullock=1543

Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet=1544

Note : When - If Ever - Should Accommodations of Religion Be Permitted?=1546

E. Free Exercise, Free Speech, and the Right of Expressive Association=1549

Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church & School v. EEOC=1549

Note : The Relation between the Religion Clauses and Other Protections of Expression=1550

Note : Concluding Observations=1554

IX. State Action, Baselines, and the Problem of Private Power=1555

A. State Action, Federalism, and Individual Autonomy=1556

1. State Action and Federalism=1556

The Civil Rights Cases=1556

Note : Federalism and the Substantive Content of the State Action Doctrine=1559

2. State Action and Individual Autonomy=1560

B. Pure Inaction and the Theory of Governmental Neutrality=1562

1. Pure Inaction=1562

DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department of Social Services=1562

Flagg Brothers v. Brooks=1564

Lugar v. Edmondson Oil Co.=1568

Note : The Problem of the Passive State=1569

2. Judicial Action and the Theory of Government Neutrality=1573

Shelley v. Kraemer=1573

Note : Shelley v. Kraemer, State Inaction, and the Theory of Government Neutrality=1576

C. Constitutionally Impermissible Departures from Neutrality : State Subsidization, Approval, and Encouragement=1582

1. State Subsidization of Private Conduct=1582

Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority=1582

Note : Subsidies, Penalties, and the Search for a Baseline=1584

Rendell-Baker v. Kohn=1587

San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. United States Olympic Committee=1588

Note : State Action as Coercion or Significant Encouragement=1589

2. State Licensing and Authorization=1592

Public Utilities Commission v. Pollak=1592

Moose Lodge No. 107 v. Irvis=1592

Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co.=1594

Note : Licensing, Authorization, and Entwinement as State Action=1596

D. Constitutionally Required Departures from Neutrality : The Public Function Doctrine=1597

Marsh v. Alabama=1597

Note : The "Public Function" Theory and the Passive State=1599

Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co.=1604

Note : Public Functions as "Exclusive Prerogatives" of the State=1605

E. Unconstitutional Conditions and the Benefit/Burden Distinction=1608

Rust v. Sullivan=1609

Maher v. Roe=1610

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius=1611

Nollan v. California Coastal Commission=1613

Note : Benefits, Burdens, and Coercion=1614

F. Some Final Thoughts=1620

Table of Cases=1621

Table of Authorities=1641

Index=1665