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FOREWORD=iii

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS=vii

TABLE OF CASES=xxi

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES=xxix

EXPLANATORY NOTE=xxxix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS=xxxix

PERMISSION TO REPRINT=xxxix

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION=1

Chapter II. DUAL SOVEREIGNTY : THE INTERRELATION OF THE STATE AND FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONS=7

INTRODUCTION=7

A. THE SOURCES AND NATURE OF FEDERAL AND STATE POWERS=7

1. Exclusive Federal Powers=7

GONZALES v. RAICH=8

NATIONAL FEDERATION OF INDEPENDENT BUSINESSES v. SEBELIUS=21

WYOMING v. OKLAHOMA=32

NATIONAL FEDERATION OF INDEPENDENT BUSINESSES v. SEBELIUS=35

CITY OF BOERNE v. FLORES=40

2. Exclusive State Powers=47

3. Overlapping and Shared Powers=48

UNITED STATES v. LOPEZ=50

B. LIMITATIONS ON FEDERAL POWER=55

1. The Anti-Commandeering Principle=55

PRINTZ v. UNITED STATES=55

2. Immunity from Suits under Federal Law=60

ALDEN v. MAINE=60

3. Clear Statement Requirements=68

GREGORY v. ASHCROFT=68

C. FEDERAL LIMITATIONS ON STATE POWER―ARTICLE VI=72

ROMER v. EVANS=74

NOTE=76

U.S. TERM LIMITS, INC. v. THORNTON=77

ARIZONA STATE LEGISLATURE v. ARIZONA INDEP. REDISTRICTING COM'N=82

D. FEDERAL ARTICLE IV PROVISIONS THAT MAY LIMIT OR INFLUENCE THE CONTENT OF STATE CONSTITUTIONS=94

1. Full Faith and Credit=94

2. Privileges and Immunities=95

3. Extradition=95

4. Congressional Power to Admit New States=95

COYLE v. SMITH=95

NOTE=99

5. The Guarantee Clause=99

LUTHER v. BORDEN=100

PACIFIC STATES TELEPHONE & TELEGRAPH CO. v. OREGON=104

KERR v. HICKENLOOPER=106

Chapter III. THEORIES BY WHICH STATE COURTS MAY CONSTRUE STATE CONSTITUTIONS DIFFERENTLY FROM THEIR FEDERAL COUNTERPARTS=115

A. SIMILARLY WORDED GUARANTEES=116

SITZ v. DEPARTMENT OF STATE POLICE=118

NOTES=122

STATE v. HEMPELE=122

NOTE=127

BLUM v. MERRELL DOW PHARMACEUTICALS, INC.=127

NOTES=131

B. DIFFERENTLY WORDED PROVISIONS=132

RACING ASSOCIATION OF CENTRAL IOWA v. FITZGERALD=133

NOTES=137

STATE v. JORDEN=137

C. INDEPENDENT AND ADEQUATE STATE GROUNDS : STATE COURT RULINGS THAT ADDRESS FEDERAL AND STATE BASES FOR DECISION=139

OHIO v. ROBINETTE=141

OHIO v. ROBINETTE=143

OHIO v. ROBINETTE=146

NOTES=150

D. SEQUENCING : THE ORDER IN WHICH STATE COURTS RESOLVE RELATED STATE AND FEDERAL CLAIMS AND THE PRIORITY GIVEN TO EACH=150

Jeffrey S. Sutton, What Does―and Does Not―Ail State Constitutional Law=154

Chapter IV. EQUALITY=161

A. INTRODUCTION=161

Jeffrey M. Shaman, Equality and Liberty in The Golden Age of State Constitutional Law=161

B. RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONS=162

SHEFF v. O'NEILL=162

NOTE=171

MALABED v. NORTH SLOPE BOROUGH=172

NOTE=178

C. CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON GENDER=179

COMMONWEALTH v. PENNSYLVANIA INTERSCHOLASTIC ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION=179

NOTE=181

GRIFFIN v. CRANE=183

STATE v. RIVERA=187

D. CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON AGE=189

O'NEILL v. BANE=189

NOTES=192

ARNESON v. STATE=193

D.P. v STATE=197

E. CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION=201

TANNER v. OREGON HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY=201

NOTE=205

F. ECONOMIC RIGHTS=206

BENSON v. NORTH DAKOTA WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION BUREAU=207

COLLINS v. DAY=211

CHURCH v. STATE=216

G. THE RIGHT TO VOTE=221

WEINSCHENK v. STATE=221

NOTE=226

LEAGUE OF WOMEN VOTERS OF INDIANA v. ROKITA=226

NOTES=231

Chapter V. DUE PROCESS OF LAW=233

A. INTRODUCTION=233

B. REPRODUCTIVE AUTONOMY=235

DAVIS v. DAVIS=235

NOTE=241

IN RE T.W.=242

NOTE=249

PLANNED PARENTHOOD v. SUNDQUIST=250

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH SERVICE OF PLANNED PARENTHOOD OF ST. LOUIS REGION, INC. v. NIXON=256

C. THE RIGHT OF INTIMATE ASSOCIATION=257

STATE v. SAUNDERS=257

NOTE=263

COMMONWEALTH v. WASSON=264

NOTE=275

D. CIVIL UNION AND MARRIAGE=275

BAKER v. STATE=275

NOTES=285

GOODRIDGE v. DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH=286

NOTES=306

E. THE RIGHT OF BODILY INTEGRITY=309

MATTER OF FARRELL=309

KRISCHER v. McIVER=313

RAVIN v. STATE=318

NOTES=322

F. PROCEDURAL DUE PROCESS=323

STATE v. VEALE=323

M.E.K. v. R.L.K.=327

PEOPLE v. WASHINGTON=330

Chapter VI. CRIMINAL PROCEDURE=337

A. RIGHT TO JURY TRIAL=337

CLAUDIO v. STATE=337

MAYMI v. STATE=337

NOTES=347

B. SELF-INCRIMINATION=348

COMMONWEALTH v. MOLINA=348

COMMONWEALTH v. GELFGATT=359

C. RIGHT TO COUNSEL=365

BRYAN v. STATE=365

NOTES=371

D. CONFRONTATION―FACE TO FACE=372

COMMONWEALTH v. LUDWIG=372

NOTES=376

E. DUTY TO PRESERVE EVIDENCE=376

HAMMOND v. STATE=376

F. DOUBLE JEOPARDY=384

RICHARDSON v. STATE=384

NOTE=390

G. CRUEL AND UNUSUAL PUNISHMENT=391

STATE v. SANTIAGO=391

Chapter VII. SEARCH AND SEIZURE=401

A. INTRODUCTION=401

B. PROBABLE CAUSE=401

PEOPLE v. GRIMINGER=401

COMMONWEALTH v. GRAY=404

NOTES=409

C. GOOD FAITH EXCEPTION TO WARRANT REQUIREMENT=410

STATE v. KOIVU=410

COMMONWEALTH v. EDMUNDS=415

NOTES=429

D. AUTOMATIC STANDING=430

STATE v. LAMB=430

STATE v. BULLOCK=432

NOTE=436

E. WARRANT REQUIREMENT=436

STATE v. EARLS=436

STATE v. BRYANT=443

NOTES=448

F. PHYSICAL SEIZURE OF INDIVIDUAL BY POLICE=449

STATE v. BEAUCHESNE=449

NOTES=455

G. WARRANTLESS AUTOMOBILE SEARCH INCIDENT TO ARREST=456

STATE v. AFANA=456

NOTES=460

H. MIRANDA VIOLATION―PHYSICAL EVIDENCE EXCLUDED=461

STATE v. PETERSON=461

NOTES=466

Chapter VIII. PROPERTY RIGHTS=469

A. INTRODUCTION=469

B. TAKINGS PROVISIONS AND THE POST-KELO STORY=469

CITY OF NORWOOD v. HORNEY=470

BD. OF COUNTY COMM'RS OF MUSKOGEE COUNTY v. LOWERY=478

GOLDSTEIN v. NEW YORK STATE URBAN DEV. CORP.=484

READING AREA WATER AUTHORITY v. SCHUYKILL RIVER GREENWAY ASS'N=494

UTAH DEPT. OF TRANSPORTATION v. CARLSON=500

NOTES=504

NEVADANS FOR THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS, ET AL. v. HELLER=505

C. OTHER PROPERTY-RELATED RIGHTS UNDER STATE CONSTITUTIONS=513

PATEL v. TEXAS DEPT. OF LICENSING=513

Chapter IX. RELIGION CLAUSES=537

A. FREEDOM OF RELIGION=537

EMPLOYMENT DIV., DEP'T OF HUMAN RES. OF OREGON v. SMITH=538

NOTES=540

CITY OF BOERNE v. FLORES=541

NOTES=542

HUMPHREY v. LANE=543

ATTORNEY GENERAL v. DESILETS=545

NOTES=548

BARR v. CITY OF SINTON=549

CATHOLIC CHARITIES OF THE DIOCESE OF ALBANY v. SERIO=554

NOTES=556

B. ESTABLISHMENT OF RELIGION=557

Mark Edward DeForrest, An Overview and Evaluation of State Blaine Amendments : Origins, Scope, and First Amendment Concerns=558

ZELMAN v. SIMMONS-HARRIS=562

JACKSON v. BENSON=564

NOTE=566

TAXPAYERS FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION v. DOUGLAS COUNTY SCHOOL DISTRICT=567

CAIN v. HORNE=573

MEREDITH v. PENCE=576

CALIFORNIA STATEWIDE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY v. ALL PERSONS INTERESTED IN THE MATTER OF THE VALIDITY OF A PURCHASE AGREEMENT=579

NOTES=583

Chapter X. SCHOOL FUNDING CLAUSES=585

A. INTRODUCTION=585

B. EQUAL PROTECTION DECISIONS=587

HORN BECK v. SOMERSET COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION=588

HORTON v. MESKILL=591

VINCENT v. VOIGHT=593

NOTE=597

C. ADEQUACY DECISIONS=598

EDGEWOOD INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT v. KIRBY=599

DeROLPH v. STATE=602

DeROLPH v. STATE=606

NOTE=609

COLUMBIA FALLS ELEMENTARY SCHOOL DISTRICT NO. 6 v. STATE=610

ABBOTT v. BURKE=612

NOTES=614

D. SCHOOL UNIFORMITY CLAUSES=615

BUSH v. HOLMES=615

E. REMEDY=620

HOKE COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION v. STATE=620

CLAREMONT SCHOOL DISTRICT v. GOVERNOR=625

NEELEY v. WEST ORANGE-COVE CONSOLIDATED INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT=631

NOTE=633

Chapter XI. THE RIGHT TO A REMEDY AND OPEN COURTS=635

A. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND=635

The Kansas Remedy by Due Course of Law Provision : Defining a Right to a Remedy / Shannon M. Roesler=636

B. CASES DEFINING THE RIGHT=638

SMOTHERS v. GRESHAM TRANSFER, INC.,=638

ARBINO v. JOHNSON & JOHNSON=653

RUTHER v. KAISER=658

McINTOSH v. MELROE CO.=663

IEROPOLI v. AC&S CORP.=670

NOTES=675

LANEY v. FAIRVIEW CITY=675

TINDLEY v. SALT LAKE CITY SCHOOL DISTRICT,=683

NOTES=688

MELLO v. BIG Y FOODS=688

NOTES=690

Chapter XII. OTHER STATE INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS=693

A. PRIVACY=693

YORK v. WAHKIAKUM SCHOOL DISTRICT NO. 200=693

NOTE=699

B. FREE SPEECH AND EXPRESSION=700

FASHION VALLEY MALL v. NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD=700

NOTE=706

STATE v. STUMMER=707

NOTES=714

C. CIVIL JURY TRIAL=714

SOFIE v. FIBREBOARD CORP.=714

McCOOL v. GEHRET=719

NOTES=723

D. RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS=723

JANE DOE v. WILMINGTON HOUSING AUTHORITY=723

NOTES=735

E. EXCESSIVE FINES―PUNITIVE DAMAGES=735

COLONIAL PIPELINE CO. v. BROWN=735

NOTES=742

F. CRIME VICTIMS' RIGHTS=743

SCHILLING v. CRIME VICTIMS RIGHTS BOARD=743

NOTES=750

Chapter XIII. STATE CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS WITH NO FEDERAL COUNTERPARTS=753

A. INTRODUCTION=753

B. SINGLE SUBJECT AND CLEAR TITLE RULES=754

State Constitutional Restriction on Legislative Procedure : Rethinking the Analysis of Original Purpose, Single Subject, and Clear Title Challenges / Martha Dragich=754

1. Original Purpose=757

2. Single Subject and Clear Title=759

McINTIRE v. FORBES=761

TURNBULL v. FINK=764

GREGORY v. SHURTLEFF=770

NOTE=774

C. PUBLIC PURPOSE REQUIREMENTS=776

MAREADY v. CITY OF WINSTON-SALEM=776

HOPPER v. CITY OF MADISON=785

TOWN OF BELOIT v. COUNTY OF ROCK=790

D. UNIFORMITY CLAUSES=797

ALLEGHENY PITTSBURGH COAL v. WEBSTER COUNTY=797

NORDLINGER v. HAHN=801

BETTIGOLE v. ASSESSORS OF SPRINGFIELD=805

TOPEKA CEMETERY ASSOCIATION v. SCHNELLBACHER=808

LEONARD v. THORNBURGH=813

ALLEGRO SERVICES, LTD. v. METROPOLITAN PIER AND EXPOSITION A UTHORITY=815

Chapter XIV. ORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENTS=825

A. INTRODUCTION=825

B. LEGISLATIVE POWER=825

1. Introduction=825

2. Term Limits for State and Local Officials=826

HOERGER v. SPOTA=826

TELLI v. BROWARD COUNTY=828

LORTON v. JONES=831

NOTES=837

C. EXECUTIVE POWER=838

1. The Selection and Organization of the Executive=838

PERDUE v. BAKER=839

2. The "Line Item" Veto Power=847

ST. JOHN'S WELL CHILD AND FAMILY CENTER v. SCHWARZENEGGER=847

JACKSON v. SANDFORD=853

HOMAN v. BRANSTAD=856

NOTES=864

D. JUDICIAL POWER=864

1. The Election of Judges=865

Selecting Justice in State Courts : The Ballot Box or the Backroom? / Judith L. Maute=865

NOTES=870

2. Justiciability : Standing, Mootness and Political Questions=871

GREGORY v. SHURTLEFF=871

COUEY v. ATKINS=885

IN RE GUARDIANSHIP OF TSCHUMY=895

BERRY v. CRAWFORD=903

3. Advisory Opinions=910

STATE OF KANSAS EXREL. MORRISON v. SEBELIUS=910

In re OPINION OF THE JUSTICES (APPOINTMENT OF CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE SUPREME COURT)=918

NOTE=920

4. Certified Questions=920

LEHMAN BROTHERS v. SCHEIN=921

HALEY v. UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE-KNOXVILLE=924

5. Implied Constitutional Remedies=926

KATZBERG v. REGENTS OF THE UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA=926

NOTES=932

E. SEPARATION OF POWERS=932

IN RE PETITION OF GOVERNOR=932

IN RE REQUEST FOR ADVISORY OPINION FROM HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES=936

Chapter XV. AMENDMENT AND REVISION OF STATE CONSTITUTIONS=941

A. INTRODUCTION=941

B. ALTERING STATE CONSTITUTIONS=944

Methods of Altering State Constitutions / Anne Permaloff=944

1. The Idea that Constitutions May Be Altered Is Not New=945

2. Legislatively Proposed Amendments=947

3. Constitutional Conventions=949

4. Constitutional Convention Procedures Today=950

5. Strengths and Weaknesses=951

6. Constitutional Initiatives=952

7. Direct Initiative=953

8. Indirect Initiative=953

9. Limitations on Constitutional Initiatives=954

10. Strengths and Weaknesses=955

11. Constitutional Commissions=956

12. Strengths and Weaknesses=957

13. Conclusion=958

C. INITIATIVE=959

CARTER v. LEHI CITY=959

ARIZONA STATE LEGISLATURE v. ARIZONA INDEPENDENT REDISTRICTING COMMISSION, ET AL.=966

The Perils of Direct Democracy : The California Experience / Ronald M. George=971

NOTES=974

D. CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION―REQUIRED FOR COMPLETE REVISION=975

OPINION OF THE JUSTICES=975

NOTE=980

E. CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSIONS=980

The Constitutional Commission in New York : A Worthy Tradition / Peter J. Galie ; Christopher Bopst=980

1. The New York State Constitutional Commission Experience=982

2. The Constitutional Commission Experience in Other States=982

3. Conclusion=986

Chapter XVI. THE FRAMING OF STATE CONSTITUTIONS AND THEIR HISTORY=987

PREFACE=987

A. STATE CONSTITUTIONS' NASCENCY=987

B. FIRST STATE CONSTITUTIONAL FORAYS=994

C. NEW NATION BEGINS=1005

D. STATEHOOD ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS=1007

E. STRUCTURES OF GOVERNMENT=1010

F. NINETEENTH CENTURY DAWNS=1013

G. ANTEBELLUM STATE CONSTITUTIONS=1018

H. ANTEBELLUM INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS=1026

I. RECONSTRUCTION REVISIONS=1027

J. FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT=1029

K. RECONSTRUCTION AND BEYOND=1032

L. PROGRESSIVE ERA POTPOURRI=1036

M. INCORPORATION DOCTRINE'S IMPACT=1041

N. NEW DEAL CHALLENGES=1043

O. COLD WAR REVISIONS=1044

P. PATTERNS AND MODELS=1045

INDEX=1051

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In this, the second edition of State Constitutional Law: The Modern Experience, the authors present cases, scholarly writings, and other materials about our ever-evolving, ever-more-relevant state charters of government. The casebook starts by placing state constitutions in context―in the context of a federal system that leaves some powers exclusively with the States, delegates some powers exclusively to the Federal Government, and permits overlapping authority by both sovereigns in many areas. The resulting combination of state and federal charters―what might be called American Constitutional Law―presents fruitful opportunities for give and take, for exporting and importing constitutional tools and insights between and among the different sovereigns.

The casebook often addresses the point by explaining how the U.S. Constitution deals with an issue before discussing how the state constitutions handle an identical or similar issue. At other times, the casebook explains and illustrates how the state constitutions contain provisions that have no parallel in the U.S. Constitution. A central theme of the book, explored in the context of a variety of constitutional guarantees, is that state constitutions provide a rich source of rights independent of the federal constitution. Considerable space is devoted to the reasons why a state court might construe the liberty and property rights found in their constitutions, to use two prominent examples, more broadly than comparable rights found in the U.S. Constitution. Among the reasons considered are: differences in the text between the state and federal constitutional provisions, the smaller scope of the state courts’ jurisdiction, state constitutional history, unique state traditions and customs, and disagreement with the U.S. Supreme Court’s interpretation of similar language.

State constitutional law, like its federal counterpart, is not confined to individual rights. The casebook also explores the organization and structure of state and local governments, the method of choosing state judges, the many executive-branch powers found in state constitutions but not in their federal counterpart, the ease with which most state constitutions can be amended, and other topics, such as taxation, public finance and school funding. The casebook is not parochial. It looks at these issues through the lens of important state court decisions from nearly every one of our 50 States. In that sense, it is designed for a survey course, one that does not purport to cover any one State’s constitution in detail but that considers the kinds of provisions found in many state charters. Like a traditional contracts, real property or torts textbook, the casebook uses the most interesting state court decisions from around the country to illustrate the astonishing array of state constitutional issues at play in American Constitutional Law.

It is difficult to overstate the growing significance of state constitutional law. Many of the ground-breaking constitutional debates of the day are being aired in the state courts under their own constitutions―often as a prelude to debates about whether to nationalize this or that right under the National Constitution. To use the most salient example, it is doubtful that there would have been a national right to marriage equality in 2015, see Obergefell v. Hodges, without the establishment of a Massachusetts right to marry in 2003, see Goodridge v. Department of Public Health. In other areas of constitutional litigation―gun rights, capital punishment, property rights, school funding, free exercise claims, to name but a few―state courts often are the key innovators as well, relying on their own constitutions to address individual rights and structural debates of the twenty-first century. The mission of the casebook is to introduce students to this increasingly significant body of American law and to prepare them to practic

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