2.1. Ralph Linton's modes of cultural distribution=24

2.2. A model of cultural integration=26

4.1. International phonetic chart=65

5.1. The relation between culture and personality (based on Kardiner, 1945)=88

7.1. A timeline of production systems=127

8.1. Kinship notation=156

8.2. Kinship abbreviations=157

8.3. A generic kinship chart=159

9.1. Sanctions : formal and informal, positive and negative=172

9.2. Political systems by level of political integration (following Service 1962)=177

11.1. The Cherokee syllabary=222

12.1. A hypothetical colonial boundary, in relation to societies within=249

14.1. Global and regional poverty rate estimates for 1990, 2011, and 2030 (source : World Bank 2015 : 3).=278

1.1. Tangzhuang in a shop. Courtesy of Yu Yue/Getty Images.=2

1.2. Archaeologists study the sites of past societies, such as Teotihuacan near Mexico City. Courtesy of the author.=4

1.3. Anthropologists study the city as a distinct social system and way of life. Courtesy of the author.=8

1.4. The author standing in front of the Basaki Temple in Bali, 1988. Courtesy of the author.=10

1.5. Warlpiri (Australian Aboriginal) women preparing ritual objects. Courtesy of the author.=14

2.1. Feral children. (© Mary Evans Picture Library/Alamy).=22

2.2. Culture is composed of symbols, like these Australian Aboriginal artworks. Courtesy of the author.=25

2.3. Chimpanzees learn to use twigs or grass stems to "fish" for termites, an example of non-human culture. (© Minden Pictures/Superstock).=32

2.4. Hominid fossil skulls (from left to right) : Australopithecus afarensis, Homo erectus, Neandertal. Courtesy of the author.=34

2.5. A virtual fieldwork site : doing anthropological research in Second Life. From Tom Boellstorff 2008. Coming of Age in Second Life : An Anthropologist Explores the Virtually Human. Princeton University Press.=37

2.6. Bronislaw Malinowski conducting fieldwork with Trobriand Islanders. (© Library of the London School of Economics and Political Science (MALINOWSKI/3/18/2)).=39

3.1. An image of Manchu women, taken during the Laufer Chinese expedition (1901-1904). Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History (ID 325095).=42

3.2. A Blemmyae, one of the "monstrous races" of ancient and medieval literature. (© British Library Board. All rights reserved. BL ref : 1023910.691).=45

3.3. Utopian literature was an important precursor to modern anthropology. AKG Images.=46

3.4. The Renaissance introduced new interests in ancient culture, visual perspective, and humanism. AKG Images.=47

3.5. Franz Boas, one of the founders of modern anthropology, posing for a museum exhibit around 1895. (© National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution).=52

3.6. Claude Lêvi-Strauss integrated anthropology, psychology, and linguistics in his work. (© Sophie Bassouls/Sygma/Corbis).=57

4.1. Linguistic anthropologists began collecting language in the field in the late 1800s. (© National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution).=62

4.2. The courtroom is a typical site for the use of linguistic performatives. (© Paul Sakuma/Pool/Reuters/Corbis).=70

4.3. Masterful use of political speaking is a path to power in many societies, as for American President Barack Obama. Courtesy of www.whitehouse.gov.=72

4.4. Herbert Jim, a contemporary Seminole (Native American storyteller). (© Josh Mullenite (jmullenite@gmail.com)).=73

4.5. Body language and personal space : Arab men hold hands as a gesture of friendship. Reza/Getty Images.=75

5.1. Enculturation : Warlpiri elder men showing boys sacred knowledge and skills. Courtesy of the author.=82

5.2. Margaret Mead studied enculturation and the acquisition of gender roles in Samoan children. (© Bettmann/Corbis).=87

5.3. Muslim women in "purdah" or veil. (© Hélène David-Cuny).=92

5.4. In many societies, men must endure tests and ordeals to achieve adult masculinity. (© Kazuyoshi Nomachi/Corbis).=94

5.5. Hijras in India often sing and dance at weddings and childbirths. (© Philip Baird/www.anthroarcheart.org).=96

6.1. Western tourists in Africa inevitably take their preconceptions with them. (© Keith Levit/*/Design Pics/Corbis).=101

6.2. Anthropometry―measuring racialized bodies. Adoc-photos/Art Resource, NY.=106

6.3. Children in central Australian Aboriginal societies have straight, often blond, hair, challenging the simple racial categories of the West. Courtesy of the author.=108

6.4. Human faces of many races. (© Ben van den Bussche).=109

6.5. Racial divisions, racial tensions, and racial violence were high during the apartheid era of South Africa. (© David Turnley/Corbis).=117

7.1. Koya hunter from central India. (© Sathya Mohan.)=126

7.2. Tuareg pastoralist with his camels, North Africa. (© Alberto Arzoz/Axiom Photographic Agency).=128

7.3. Slash-and-burn is a common technique of horticulture. (©Jacques Jangoux/Alamy).=130

7.4. Intensive agriculture societies use all available land, as in Nepal where hillsides are cut into terraces. Courtesy of the author.=132

7.5. Modern markets, like this one in downtown Tokyo, can generate great wealth. Courtesy of the author.=136

7.6. Meat and other goods produced in conformity to Islamic religious norms of consumption are classified and sold as halal. (© Gregory Wrona/Alamy).=143

8.1. Two mothers and their children from the Samantha tribe, India. (© Sathya Mohan).=148

8.2. A traditional wedding ceremony on the island of Vanuatu. (© Imagesud (www.south-images.com)).=151

8.3. Great amounts of wealth may be displayed and transferred in dowry or bridewealth. (© Ami Vitale/Alamy).=154

8.4. Individuals belong to their mother's kinship group in matrilineal societies. (© Jacques Langevin/Sygma/Corbis).=158

8.5. At age fifteen, a Mexican girl would traditionally celebrate her quinceanera, at which she is introduced to adult society. (© Victoria Adame :)=161

8.6. Members of the moran or warrior age set among the Samburu of Kenya. (© Barry Kass).=163

9.1. A Haitian woman talks with an employee from an organization set up to help transform waste into resources. Courtesy of Thinkstock by Getty Images.=170

9.2. Power is not only situated in governments, but in many informal sites in society. (© Peter Marshall/Demotix/Corbis).=172

9.3. In many societies, religious specialists like this mara'acame of the Huichol Indians provide political leadership. (© Adrian Mealand).=180

9.4. The king or Asantehene of the Ashanti Kingdom (present-day Ghana). (© National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution).=181

9.5. State-level political systems, like the German one headed by Chancellor Angela Merkel combine power and pageantry to control large, complex, and wealthy societies. (© Wolfgang Kumm/dpa/Corbis).=182

9.6. A complex web of non-governmental organizations provides much of the governmental structure of the modern world. (© Tommy Trenchard/Demotix/Corbis).=187

10.1. Preacher at a Pentecostal church in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Courtesy of Randy Olson/National Geographic/Getty Images.=192

10.2. Religions convey belief and meaning in symbols, like this golden Buddha in Thailand. Courtesy of the author.=194

10.3. Ganakwe bushman dancing into a trance. (© David Turnley/Corbis).=201

10.4. Shamanism is a common religious idea and practice across cultures. (© Lindsay Hebberd/Corbis).=202

10.5. Warlpiri women lead girls in a dance ritual. Courtesy of the author.=206

10.6. A sacred site : the inside of a spirit-house in Papua New Guinea. Courtesy of the author.=210

11.1. Buddhists praying and taking collections for earthquake victims in Kyoto, Japan. Courtesy of Thinkstock via Getty Images.=216

11.2. Halloween in the United States is an invented tradition combining very old and general harvest and spirit practices with newer and uniquely American elements. (© Erik Freeland/Corbis SABA).=218

11.3. Foragers are often forced to settle down, as in these concrete houses built for the formerly nomadic Warlpiri. Courtesy of the author.=225

11.4. Native American children were often acculturated through the use of boarding schools, like the Carlisle School. (© National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution).=227

11.5. A newspaper image protesting political oppression in Mongolia. The main text reads "Don't forget...This repression shouldn't be repeated." (© Chris Kaplonski).=229

11.6. Inculturation is a common way for religions to find a place in a new society. (© Frans Lanting/Corbis).=231

12.1. The proclamation of the independent "Republic of Hawaii," with American missionary Sanford Dole as president, after the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. AKG Images.=234

12.2. Indirect rule involved creating partnerships between European colonizers and local people, including recruitment of native soldiers into colonial armies, as depicted here in Rwanda. (© AKG Images/Alamy).=236

12.3. Colonialism was a political and personal relationship between colonizers―like the British officer depicted here in colonial India―and colonized. Courtesy of Godoirum Bassanensis (digitization and enhancement).=240

12.4. Colonialism typically involved the military defeat and conquest of native peoples, like these Apache women held captive by American soldiers. (© National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution).=242

12.5. Well into the twentieth century, Australian Aboriginals were often arrested and chained. Sourced from the collections of the State Library of Western Australia and reproduced with the permission of the Library Board of Western Australia. 303666PD.=246

13.1. Colonized people often used force to end the occupation of their land, as in the Algerian War where Algerians sought independence from France (1954-1962). (© Manuel Litran/Corbis).=257

13.2. During the 1994 genocide, Ugandan fishermen found themselves pulling dozens of bodies out of Lake Victoria. The badly decomposed bodies had traveled hundreds of miles by river from Rwanda. (© David Blumenkrantz).=261

13.3. A mural in Ulster, Northern Ireland depicting the "struggle" of loyalists against Irish Catholic nationalists. (© Martin Melaugh/CAIN (cain.ulster.ac.uk)).=262

13.4. Independence supporters on the streets of Barcelona during the National Day of Catalonia. Courtesy of Thinkstock via Getty Images.=263

13.5. A refugee camp in Somalia, east Africa. (© Refugees International).=268

13.6. An undocumented immigrant is apprehended in Arizona near the Mexican border. Courtesy of Scott Olson/Thinkstock by Getty Images.=271

14.1. China’s cities, including Beijing (pictured), face serious air pollution with the development of industry. Courtesy of Thinkstock via Getty Images.=275

14.2. Many of the world's poor live in squalid conditions, like this crowded favela or slum in Brazil. Courtesy of Thinkstock via Getty Images.=277

14.3. The gleaming modern headquarters of the World Bank, one of the leading institutions of global development. (© Uschools University Images/iStockphoto).=285

14.4. This Gunjari village in India was submerged because of a dam project. (© Narmada Bachao Andolan/www.internationalrivers.org).=288

14.5. Indian women attending a presentation on microfinancing. (© Kari Hammett-Caster for Unitus : unituslabs.org).=290

14.6. Neoliberalism often exposes people to the impersonal forces of global markets. Here a woman and her daughter from the Nigerian delta stand in oily deposits resultant from a Shell oil spill. (© Adrian Arbib/Corbis).=291

15.1. Hard Rock Café, owned by the Seminole Tribe. Courtesy of Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via Getty Images.=296

15.2. Many indigenous societies are in danger of extinction, like the Akuntsu of South America, who are down to their last six survivors. Their numbers continue to decline. (© Fiona Watson/Survival International).=298

15.3. Indigenous Aymara of Bolivia marching in 2006 in support of new president Evo Morales. (© Imagesud (www.southimages.com)).=299

15.4. Pacific Islanders adopted aspects of Western culture―including marching in formation with mock rifles―in their cargo cults. (© 2012 Sami Sarkis and World of Stock).=301

15.5. Cultural tourists strolling through Aztec ruins in central Mexico. Courtesy of the author.=309

15.6. The pow wow is a popular intertribal event. (© Paul Figdor).=311

16.1. A star Liberian footballer visits former child soldiers at a care center as part of a UN campaign. The focus is on reintegrating children who have been traumatized by their war experiences. Courtesy of AFP/Getty Images.=317

16.2. Yebichai, giving the medicine : Navajo shaman with participant. Courtesy of the Edward S. Curtis Collection, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.=321

16.3. Waiting room at a Japanese clinic. Courtesy of Gary Conner/Getty Images.=326

16.4. Cultures differ in their notions of, and treatment of, mental illness. (© Jerry Cooke/Science Photo Library).=330

16.5. A yoga class geared toward cancer patients in the United States. Courtesy of Justin Sullivan/Thinkstock by Getty Images.=334

0.1. Major societies mentioned in the text=xxii

8.1. Youth (age fifteen to twenty-four) as percentage of national population (source : USAID 2012 : 5)=165

12.1. Colonial Africa=245

13.1. The ethnic groups of northern Sudan and southern Sudan (source : Dr M. Izady/gulf2000.columbia.edu)=254

13.2. African diaspora/slave routes=267

15.1. Sri Lanka and "Tamil Eelam"=303