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Title page

Contents

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Executive summary 10

1. Introduction: Toward a comprehensive framework for countering disinformation and reinforcing information integrity 13

1.1. A NEW AND RAPIDLY CHANGING INFORMATION ENVIRONMENT 14

1.2. CHANGES IN INFORMATION SPACES AFFECT DEMOCRATIC ENGAGEMENT 15

1.3. DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENTS' ROLE IN REINFORCING INFORMATION INTEGRITY RATHER THAN FOCUSING ON CONTENT 16

1.4. CONSIDERATIONS AND PATH FORWARD 18

REFERENCES 24

NOTES 26

2. Implementing policies to enhance the transparency, accountability, and plurality of information sources 28

2.1. INTRODUCTION 29

2.2. ENCOURAGING ACCOUNTABILITY AND TRANSPARENCY OF ONLINE AND SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS 30

2.3. PROMOTING PLURALISTIC, INDEPENDENT, AND COMPETITIVE MEDIA AND INFORMATION MARKETS 40

2.4. COUNTERING SPECIFIC RISKS IN THE INFORMATION SPACE 49

2.5. CONSIDERATIONS AND PATH FORWARD 59

REFERENCES 62

NOTES 69

3. Fostering societal resilience to disinformation 72

3.1. INTRODUCTION 73

3.2. MEDIA, INFORMATION, AND DIGITAL LITERACY IS ESSENTIAL TO DEVELOPING A SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO BUILDING SOCIETAL RESILIENCE 74

3.3. PUBLIC COMMUNICATION PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN PROVIDING INFORMATION 86

3.4. STRENGTHENING PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND BUILDING UNDERSTANDING OF THE INFORMATION SPACE THROUGH RESEARCH ARE KEY... 91

3.5. CONSIDERATIONS AND PATH FORWARD 98

REFERENCES 100

NOTES 104

4. Upgrading governance measures and institutional architecture to uphold the integrity of the information space 106

4.1. INTRODUCTION 107

4.2. GOVERNMENT CO-ORDINATION AND STRATEGIC GUIDANCE ARE NEEDED TO ADDRESS THIS MULTIFACETED POLICY CHALLENGE 107

4.3. CHANGES WITHIN THE INFORMATION SPACE REQUIRE A GREATER FOCUS ON BUILDING CAPACITY IN THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 125

4.4. GOVERNMENTS WILL NEED TO CONTINUE TO DEVELOP AGILE REGULATORY GOVERNANCE TO BUILD INFORMATION INTEGRITY 128

4.5. CONSIDERATIONS AND PATH FORWARD 131

4.6. METHODOLOGICAL NOTE 133

REFERENCES 133

NOTES 137

Figures

Figure 4.1. Areas for future improvements to strengthen information integrity 108

Figure 4.2. Government co-ordination mechanisms to tackle disinformation 111

Figure 4.3. Objectives cross-government co-ordination mechanism 112

Boxes

Box 2.1. Australia - Voluntary Code of Practice on Disinformation and Misinformation 32

Box 2.2. Relevant language from Section 230 of the United States Communications Decency Act (1996) 35

Box 2.3. Overview of Australia's Communications Legislation Amendment (Combatting Misinformation and Disinformation) Bill 37

Box 2.4. DSA Article 40 - Data access and scrutiny 38

Box 2.5. ODA initiatives to strengthen media and information environments 46

Box 2.6. Defining foreign interference and Foreign Information Manipulation and Interference (FIMI) 51

Box 2.7. The application of the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) to the fight against disinformation 54

Box 2.8. Ensuring information integrity during elections via special taskforces 56

Box 3.1. Media literacy in Finland 75

Box 3.2. The "CLEMI": France's centre to promote and co-ordinate media and information literacy activities 76

Box 3.3. Estonia's "Media and Manipulation" course in the high-school curriculum 77

Box 3.4. Dutch Media Literacy Network 78

Box 3.5. Ireland's "Be Media Smart" media literacy campaign 79

Box 3.6. United Kingdom efforts to help vulnerable people to spot disinformation and boost online safety 80

Box 3.7. Security and Intelligence assessments - Case studies from Lithuania, Latvia, Finland and Sweden 81

Box 3.8. GoViral! Pre-bunking game 82

Box 3.9. Media literacy assessment tools 84

Box 3.10. Harmony Square and Cat Park media and information literacy games 85

Box 3.11. OECD Good Practice Principles for Public Communication Responses to Mis- and Disinformation 87

Box 3.12. Lithuanian government co-operation with Debunk.EU and Meta on moderation policies 89

Box 3.13. Ireland's Future of Media Commission 93

Box 3.14. An International Collaboration to tackle Misinformation with Behavioural Insights 94

Box 3.15. Canada's Digital Citizen Initiative 95

Box 3.16. The International Observatory on Information and Democracy 97

Box 4.1. The Netherlands' government-wide strategy for tackling disinformation 109

Box 4.2. Ireland's National Counter Disinformation Strategy Working Group 110

Box 4.3. The National Co-ordination Group on Information Space Security - Latvia 113

Box 4.4. The National Crisis Management Centre - Lithuania 114

Box 4.5. The Service for Vigilance and Protection against Foreign Digital Interference - France 115

Box 4.6. The Swedish Psychological Defence Agency - Sweden 116

Box 4.7. The Global Engagement Center - United States 116

Box 4.8. The role of the Department for Information and Publishing in Italy 118

Box 4.9. Inter-ministerial working groups to counter disinformation - Germany 119

Box 4.10. Chile's National Commission Against Disinformation 119

Box 4.11. The European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE) 121

Box 4.12. The Framework to Counter Foreign State Information Manipulation - U.S. Department of State 122

Box 4.13. The G7 Rapid Response Mechanism 123

Box 4.14. The Lublin Triangle - Trilateral co-operation to tackle Russian disinformation 123

Box 4.15. The Global Declaration on Information Integrity Online 124

Box 4.16. International Partnership for Information and Democracy 125

Box 4.17. Guidance on dealing with disinformation - The Netherlands 126

Box 4.18. United Kingdom's RESIST Counter-Disinformation Toolkit 127

Box 4.19. Ministry of Foreign Affairs training on disinformation and strategic communication - Italy 127

Box 4.20. Privy Council Office counter-disinformation training - Canada 128

Box 4.21. The EU Digital Services Act Impact Assessment Report 130

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