Preface
Acknowledgments
List of Tables and Figures
1 A Brief Introduction to the Sociology of Health, Healing, and Illness
COVID-19 as a Window into the Sociology of Health, Healing, and Illness
What Is Sociology?
What Is Medical Sociology?
Historical Development of Medical Sociology
Setting the Foundation: The Importance of Social Factors in Health and Illness
The Turn of the Century: Development of Social Medicine
The Early to Mid-twentieth Century: More Studies on Health and Medicine
The 1950s and 1960s: The Formal Subdiscipline Emerges
Emerging Areas of Interest
Sociological Theories and Methods
Sociological Theories
Sociological Research Methods
The Role of Medical Sociology in the COVID-19 Era
Health on the Internet
Discussion Questions
Glossary
References
2 The Development of Scientific Medicine
A Brief History of Medicine
Early Humans
Supernatural Belief Systems
The First Physicians
Four Ancient Civilizations
Ancient Chinese Civilization
Ancient Egyptian Civilization
Ancient Mesopotamian Civilization
Ancient Indian Civilization
Greek and Roman Societies
Hippocrates—The “Father of Medicine”
Roman Medicine
Galen
The Medieval Era
Monastic Medicine
Islamic Medicine
Scholastic Medicine
Medicine in the Renaissance
Andreas Vesalius
Medical Specialization
Medicine from 1600 to 1900
The Seventeenth Century
The Eighteenth Century
The Nineteenth Century
The Ascendancy of Medical Authority in America
Early America
The Revolution to the Mid-1800s
1850 Onward
Forces Stimulating Professionalization
The Great Trade of 1910
Perspectives on the Social and Cultural Authority of Medicine
Paul Starr
Vicente Navarro
COVID-19, Anti-Science, and Challenges to Medical Authority
Health on the Internet
Discussion Question
Glossary
References
3 Social Epidemiology
The Epidemiological Transition
The Re-emergence of Infectious Diseases
The Social Etiology of Disease
The Social Determinants of Health
Genetic Factors in Health
Key Measures of Population Health
Life Expectancy
Mortality
Infant Mortality
Maternal Mortality
Morbidity
Disability
Social Disparities in Population Health in the United States
Socioeconomic Status
Race and Ethnicity
Sex and Gender
Sexual Minorities
COVID-19 and Social Disparities in Health
Race and COVID-19
COVID-19-Related Excess Mortality in Global Perspective
Health on the Internet
Discussion Cases
Glossary
References
4 Social Stress
Definition of Stress
Historical Development of the Stress Concept
Walter Cannon and Hans Selye
A Model of Social Stress
Stressors
Stressors and the Sociological Perspective
Types of Stressors
Appraisal of Stressors
Appraisal and the Sociological Perspective
Mediators of Stress: Coping and Social Support
Mediators and the Sociological Perspective
Coping
Social Support
Stress Outcomes
Pathways Between Stress and Disease
Social Disparities in Stress
The Role of Discrimination in Stress Experiences and Health Outcomes
Socioeconomic Status
Race
Sexual Minorities
Gender
The Effects of Multiple Disadvantaged Statuses
Understanding COVID-19 Stress
Health on the Internet
Discussion Case
Glossary
References
5 Health Behavior
The Concept of Health
The Biomedical Definition of Health
Sociological Definitions of Health
The World Health Organization Definition of Health
Health Behavior
The Micro Approach to Health Behavior
Prevention
Detection
Micro-Level Theories of Health Behavior
The Macro Approach to Health Behavior
Understanding Vaccine Hesitancy
Childhood Vaccine Mandates
COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy
Factors Affecting COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy
COVID-19 Vaccine Regret
Health on the Internet
Discussion Cases
Case 1
Case 2
Glossary
References
6 Experiencing Illness and Disability
Stages of Illness Experience
Stage 1: Symptom Experience
Perception and Interpretation of Symptoms
The Importance of Pain and Pain Tolerance
Available (Mis)Information
Stage 2: Assumption of the Sick Role
Background of the Sick Role Concept
Criticisms of the Sick Role
Rebuttal to Sick Role Criticism
The Social Construction of Illness
Medicalization
Demedicalization
Biomedicalization
Stage 3: Medical Care Contact/Self-Care
The Decision to Seek Professional Care
Use of Medical Care Services
The Concept of Self-Care
Stage 4: Dependent-Patient Role
Stage 5: Recovery and Rehabilitation
Experiencing Chronic Illness and Disability
Relationship Between Chronic Illness and Disability
Living with Chronic Illness and Disability
The Impact on Sense of Self
The Role of Social Stigma
Long COVID as Disability
Health on the Internet
Discussion Questions
Glossary
References
7 Physicians and the Profession of Medicine
The Profession of Medicine
Characteristics of Professions
The Dominance of the Medical Profession
The Decline of Professional Dominance
The American Medical Association
The Social Control of Medicine
Internal Control Mechanisms
External Control: Medical Malpractice
The Number, Composition, and Distribution of Physicians in the United States
The Number of Physicians
The Composition of Physicians
Illustrating the Importance of Physician Labor Force Composition: Gender
The Distribution of Physicians
Illustrating the Complexity of Physician Distribution Problems: The Case of Rural America
The Personal Side of Being a Physician
Physician Satisfaction
Physician Dissatisfaction
Physician Stress
Physician Burnout
Physician Impairment
COVID-19 and the Stability of Medical Practices
Health on the Internet
Discussion Case
Glossary
References
8 Medical Education and the Socialization of Physicians
The History of Medical Education
Early Medical Education
Reform Efforts
Modern Medical Education
The Foundation of a New Curriculum
Academic Health Centers and Medical Schools Today
The Many Dimensions of Medical Education
Medical Students
Reform of the Medical Admissions Process
The Medical Education Curriculum
Curriculum Reform
The Medical School Experience
Attitude and Value Acquisition
Career Choices
Stress
Medical Students and the COVID-19 Pandemic
Health on the Internet
Discussion Case
Glossary
References
9 Nurses, Advanced Practice Providers, and Allied Health Workers
Evolution of Nurses, Advanced Practice Providers, and Allied Health Workers
Early America
Post-Civil War to 1920: Professional Medicine and Separate Domains
The 1920s to the 1950s: The Advent of Scientific Medicine
Contemporary Nurses and the Field of Nursing
Overview
Nurse Supply and Demand
Demographics of Nurses
Socialization of Nurses
Occupational Status of Nurses
Issues in Nursing Today
Advanced Practice Providers (APPs)
Advanced Practice Registered Nurses
Burnout Among Nurses and Advanced Practice Providers
Allied Health Workers
Team-Based Care
Perceptions of the Team Approach
The Patient-Centered Medical Home
Accountable Care Organizations
Relationships Among Health Care Workers
Physician-Nurse Relationships
The Relationship Between Physicians and Advanced Practice Providers
The COVID-19 Vaccine Mandate for Health Care Workers
Health on the Internet
Discussion Question
Glossary
References
10 Complementary and Alternative Medicine
The Meaning of Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Scientific Medicine and Alternative Healing
Orthodox Medicine’s View of Alternative Healers
CAM’s View of Conventional Healers
Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Dietary Supplements
Medical Marijuana and Marijuana Derivatives
The Dual Model of Care
The Efficacy of Complementary and Alternative Healers
Chiropractic
Origin
Basic Principles
Historical Developments
Organized Medicine and Chiropractic
Current and Future Status
Acupuncture
Origin of Acupuncture in the United States
Basic Principles
Historical Developments
Organized Medicine and Acupuncture
Current and Future Status
Spiritual Healing and Christian Science
Efficacy of Spiritual Healing
Public Perceptions of Spiritual Healing
Christian Science as an Example of Spiritual Healing
Ethnic Folk Healing
Curanderismo
Native American Healing
Preventing COVID-19 Quacks and Scams
Health on the Internet
Discussion Case
Glossary
References
11 The Physician-Patient Relationship
Models of the Physician-Patient Relationship
The Parsonian Model
Alternatives to the Parsonian Model
Key Dimensions of the Physician-Patient Relationship
The Appropriate Model of Health
Primary Ethical Obligation
Establishment of Therapeutic Communication
The Influence of Patient Background on the Physician-Patient Relationship
Cultural Health Capital
Race and Ethnicity
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Cisgender
Patient Satisfaction with Physicians
Level of Satisfaction
Factors Related to Patient Satisfaction
The Current Move to Patient-Centered Care
Cultural Competency
Health Literacy
Patient Activation
Other Recent Changes in the Physician-Patient Relationship
Patient Adherence to Medical Regimens
Factors Related to Adherence
Additional Sociological Perspectives on Adherence Behavior
Effects of COVID-19 on the Physician-Patient Relationship
Health on the Internet
Discussion Cases
Glossary
References
12 Professional and Ethical Obligations of Physicians in the Physician-Patient Relationship
The Approach of Medical Ethics
Approaches to Determining Moral Rules of Conduct Relative to Medicine
Truth-Telling as an Issue
Are Lying and Deception Acceptable Professional Behaviors?
The Current Situation Regarding Truth-Telling
Confidentiality as an Issue
The Tarasoff Case
The Meaning of Confidentiality
Medical Codes
The Laws Pertaining to Confidentiality
The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
When Confidentiality Becomes an Issue
Justifications for the Principle of Confidentiality
Grounds for Breaking Confidentiality
Right Versus Duty to Breach Confidentiality
Obligation to Treat Patients with Highly Contagious Diseases
Historical Perspectives on the Obligation to Treat
Laws Pertaining to the Obligation to Treat
Medical Codes
Physicians’ Perceptions Regarding the Obligation to Treat
Rationale for No Obligation to Treat
Rationale for Obligation to Treat
Developing Patient Triage for Hospital Patients during COVID-19
Health on the Internet
Discussion Cases
Case 1
Glossary
References
13 The United States Health Care System
Rating the US Health Care System
Based on Systematic Analysis
Based on Public Attitudes
The US Health Care System
The Foundation of the Health Care System
The Development of Private Health Insurance
The Development of a Non-profit Health Insurance Alternative
The Entry of Public (Government-Sponsored) Health Insurance
Key Flaws in the Original Government Programs
Cost Containment and Managed Care
The Financing of the US Health Care System
How Much Money Does the United States Spend on Health Care?
Who Receives the Dollars Spent on Health?
Who Pays for Health Care?
Explanations for the High Cost of US Health Care
The Aging of the Population
The High Cost of New Medical Technologies
Medical Entrepreneuralism
The Uninsured Population in the United States
Does Having Health Insurance Make a Difference?
Historical Efforts to Reform the Health Care System
Health Care Reform of 2010: The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
Positions on Health Care Reform
Securing Support for the Affordable Care and Patient Protection Act
Major Provisions of the Affordable Care Act
Who Benefits the Most from the ACA?
Key Criticisms of the ACA
Has the ACA Achieved Its Goals?
Constitutional and Political Challenges
Future Directions
Lessons from COVID-19 for the Health Care System
Health on the Internet
Discussion Case
Glossary
References
14 Health Care Delivery
Hospitals
History
The Organizational Structure of Hospitals
The Number of Hospitals and Hospital Beds
Hospital Ownership
Six Key Issues in Hospitals Today
Freestanding Ambulatory and Surgical Sites
The Traditional Setting
Freestanding Medical Sites
Nursing Homes
Types of Nursing Homes
Benefits of Nursing Homes
Concerns About Nursing Homes
Hospices
Home Health Care
Formal Home Health Care
Informal Home Health Care
COVID-19 and Existing Problems in Nursing Homes
COVID-19 and Long-Term Care Facilities
Health on the Internet
Discussion Case
Glossary
References
15 The Social Implications of Advanced Health Care Technology
Societal Control of Technology
Health Care Technology
Assessment of Health Care Technology
The Social Implications of Advanced Health Care Technology
The Right to Refuse or Demand Advanced Health Care Technology
Do Patients Have a Legal Right to Refuse Medical Treatment?
Can Patients Demand a Particular Medical Treatment?
Physician Aid-in-Dying (PAD)
Organ Donation and Transplantation
Social Policy Issues Related to Organ Transplantation
Organ Donation Policy in the United States
Alternative Organ Donation Policies
The Psychosocial Dimension of Organ Donation and Transplantation
The Donor-Recipient Relationship
Assisted Reproduction
Infertility
Assisted Reproduction Techniques (ART)
Analyzing Surrogate Motherhood
Developing Priority Lists for the COVID-19 Vaccine
Health on the Internet
Discussion Case
Glossary
References
16 Comparative Health Care Systems
Major Influences on Health Care Systems
Health Care Services in Low-Income Countries
The Central African Republic
Mexico
Types of Health Care Systems
Type 1: A Mostly Private Health Care System with Private and Public Insurance but No Universal Coverage
Type 2: A Mostly Private Health Care System with Private and Public Health Insurance with Universal Coverage
Type 3: A Mostly Public Health Care Service with Private and Public Health Insurance with Universal Coverage
Type 4: Socialized Medicine: A Public Health Care System with Universal Coverage
Four Country Portraits of Health Care System
China
The Historical, Political, and Philosophical Foundation
Organization of the Health Care System
Accessibility of Care
Performance of the Health Care System
Recent Developments in Health Care
Canada
The Historical, Political, and Philosophical Foundation
Organization of the Health Care System
Accessibility of Health Care
Performance of the Health Care System
Recent Developments in Health Care
England
The Historical, Political, and Philosophical Foundation
Organization of the Health Care System
Performance of the Health Care System
Accessibility of Health Care
Recent Developments in Health Care
Russia
The Historical, Political, and Philosophical Foundation
Organization of the Health Care System
Accessibility of Health Care
Performance of the Health Care System
Recent Developments in Health Care
COVID-19 around the World: The Experience of Sweden
Health on the Internet
Discussion Cases
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index