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Title page

Contents

Preface 4

Acknowledgements 9

1. Introduction 10

1.1. Background and objectives 10

1.2. Structure of the report 12

1.3. Data sources 12

2. Urbanization and socio-economic development 14

3. Youth labour markets in rural and urban areas 18

3.1. Labour markets in developing countries 18

3.2. The geographic divide of youth in educational attainment 19

3.2.1. Educational access 19

3.2.2. Educational attainment 23

3.3. The geographic divide in youth labour market outcomes 25

3.3.1. Unemployment 25

3.3.2. Employment by sector and occupation 27

3.3.3. Status and stability of employment 30

3.3.4. Wages 34

3.3.5. Outlook for migration 35

3.3.6. School-to-work transitions 37

4. Labour market dynamics of youth in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa 39

4.1. Overview of youth employment in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa 39

4.2. Employment structure in rural sub-Saharan Africa 40

4.2.1. Vulnerable employment in rural areas 42

4.2.2. Underutilization in rural areas 47

4.3. Productive employment in agriculture? 49

5. Conclusions and policy implications 51

5.1. Conclusions 51

5.2. Policies to promote better livelihoods of youth in rural areas 53

5.2.1. Investment and sectoral policies 53

5.2.2. Education and training policies 54

5.2.3. Labour market policies and social protection 55

5.2.4. Youth entrepreneurship and financial inclusion 55

5.2.5. Rights at work 57

References 58

Annex I. Additional tables 61

Annex II. Meta-information on the ILO school to-work transition surveys 72

Annex III. Definitions of labour market statistics 74

Tables

Table 1.1. SWTS countries by geographic distribution of sampled youth populations, 2012/13 13

Table 3.1. Educational attainment of youth by area of residence 23

Table 3.2. Employed and unemployed youth that would consider moving by area of residence and sex 35

Table 4.1. Youth employment by sector in rural sub-Saharan Africa 41

Table 4.2. Reason for engaging in contributing family work, rural youth in sub-Saharan Africa (% of contributing family workers) 45

Table 4.3. Youth employment by detailed sector, tertiary graduates in rural sub-Saharan Africa (% in total employment) 47

Figures

Figure 1.1. Urban population by income groupings, 1960-2013 (% of total) 10

Figure 2.1. Urban population, SWTS countries by income groupings (% of total), 2013 14

Figure 2.2. Urban population growth, 2000-2013, and urban population, 2013, in SWTS countries by regional grouping 15

Figure 2.3. Share of urban population and GDP per capita, agriculture value-added, life expectancy and fertility, 25 SWTS countries 16

Figure 2.4. Improved water sources by area of residence (% of population with access), 2012 17

Figure 2.5. Improved sanitation facilities by area of residence (% of population with access), 2012 18

Figure 3.1. Educational status of youth by region and area of residence (% of youth population) 20

Figure 3.2. Urban-to-rural gap in tertiary educational attainment among youth 24

Figure 3.3. Urban-to-rural gap in secondary educational attainment among youth 25

Figure 3.4. Youth unemployment rate (strict definition) by region and area of residence (% of labour force) 26

Figure 3.5. Youth unemployment rate (strict definition) by sex, region and area of residence (% of labour force) 26

Figure 3.6. Youth employment by sector, income grouping and area of residence (% in total youth employment) 27

Figure 3.7. Rural-to-urban gap in sectoral distribution of youth employment (percentage point) 28

Figure 3.8. Youth non-agricultural employment by occupation class, region and area of residence (% of non-agricultural employment) 29

Figure 3.9. Average education levels of working youth by occupation and area of residence, low-income and upper middle-income countries 30

Figure 3.10. Status in employment (youth) by area of residence, average of 25 countries (% in total employment) 31

Figure 3.11. Youth paid employment based on oral agreements by area of residence (% of total paid employment) 32

Figure 3.12. Youth employment by type of engagement, region and area of residence (% in total employment) 32

Figure 3.13. Young casual labourers by area of residence and income and regional grouping (% in total paid employment) 34

Figure 3.14. Urban-rural wage differentials for young workers by income and regional grouping 35

Figure 3.15. Employed youth who would consider moving by level of job satisfaction and area of residence 36

Figure 3.16. Rural-to-urban gaps in stages of labour market transitions by regional grouping (percentage points) 38

Figure 3.17. "Transited" youth by subcategory, area of residence and income grouping (% of youth population) 38

Figure 4.1. Main activity status of youth in rural sub-Saharan Africa (% of youth rural population) 40

Figure 4.2. Sectoral distribution of youth employment in rural sub-Saharan Africa (% of total employment) 41

Figure 4.3. Youth employment by status in rural sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural and non-agricultural sector, by country (% of total employment) 43

Figure 4.4. Youth employment by status in rural sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural and non-agricultural sector, regional average (% of total employment) 44

Figure 4.5. Youth employment by status and sex in rural sub-Saharan Africa, regional average (% of total employment) 44

Figure 4.6. Wage index of rural youth in paid employment (average monthly income of own-account workers = 100) 45

Figure 4.7. Employed youth by level of completed educational attainment, status in employment and sex, rural sub-Saharan Africa, regional average 46

Figure 4.8. Youth employment by hours worked per week and sector in rural sub-Saharan Africa, regional average (% of total employment) 48

Figure 4.9. Short time work by type of employment in rural sub-Saharan Africa (% of youth working less than 20 hours per week) 48

Figure 4.10. Agriculture value added, 2000 and 2012 (% of GDP) 49

Figure 4.11. Casual and vulnerable youth employment in agriculture in rural sub-Saharan Africa (% in total employment) 50

Boxes

Box 1. Regions, income grouping and countries covered by the SWTS 12

Box 2. Activities of adolescents (aged 15-17) 22

Box 3. ILO Rural Policy Briefs 56

Box Figures

Box Figure 1. Employed and not in school, adolescents aged 15-17, by area of residence (% in 15-17-yea rold population) 22

Annex Tables

Table A.1. Urban population, GDP per capita, agriculture, value added, life expectancy and fertility 61

Table A.2. Youth unemployment rate, employment-to-population ratio and labour force participation rate by area of residence 61

Table A.3. Youth unemployment rate by sex and area of residence (% of labour force) 62

Table A.4. Youth employment by broad sector, urban areas (% of total employment) 63

Table A.5. Youth employment by broad sector, rural areas (% of total employment) 63

Table A.6. Youth non-agricultural employment by occupation class and area of residence (% of nonagricultural employment) 64

Table A.7. Youth employment by type of engagement and area of residence (% of total employment) 65

Table A.8. Youth population by stages of transition and area of residence (% of total employment) 67

Table A.9. Youth employment by status and sex in rural areas, SWTS countries in sub-Saharan Africa (% of total employment) 67

Table A.10. Employed youth by level of completed educational attainment, status in employment and sex in rural areas, SWTS countries in sub-Saharan Africa 68

Table A.11. Youth employment by detailed sector and sex, tertiary graduates in rural areas, Uganda and Zambia (% in total employment) 70

Table A.12. Youth employment by detailed sector in rural Cambodia, Jamaica and Kyrgyzstan (% of total employment) 70

Table A.13. Youth employment in agriculture by hours worked per week in rural areas, SWTS countries in sub-Saharan Africa 71

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