Title page

Contents

Front Matter 6

About Science and Engineering Indicators 6

Indicators 2018 Parts 6

The Digest 7

The Overview of the State of the U.S. S&E Enterprise in a Global Context 7

The Eight Core Chapters 7

State Indicators Data Tool 8

Presentation 8

Letter of Transmittal 9

National Science Board 10

Acknowledgments 11

Contributors and Reviewers 12

Permissions and Citation 16

Image Credit 16

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 17

Overview of the State of the U.S. S&E Enterprise in a Global Context 23

Introduction 25

Workers with S&E Skills 27

R&D Expenditures and R&D Intensity 34

Research Publications 40

Invention, Knowledge Transfer, and Innovation 45

Knowledge-and Technology-Intensive Economic Activity 56

Summary and Conclusion 63

What Makes a Good Indicator? 65

Glossary 66

Definitions 66

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 67

References 68

Chapter 1. Elementary and Secondary Mathematics and Science Education 70

Highlights 73

Student Learning in Mathematics and Science 73

High School Coursetaking in Mathematics and Science 75

Teachers of Mathematics and Science 75

Instructional Technology and Digital Learning 76

Transition to Higher Education 76

Introduction 77

Chapter Overview 77

Developing a K-12 STEM Education Indicator System 79

Chapter Organization 79

Student Learning in Mathematics and Science 81

National Trends in K-12 Student Achievement 82

About the NAEP Technology and Engineering Literacy Assessment 90

Early Gender Gaps in Mathematics and Teachers' Perceptions 95

International Comparisons of Mathematics and Science Performance 98

Sample Items from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 2015 99

Sample Items from the Program for International Student Assessment Mathematics and Science Assessments 117

High School Coursetaking in Mathematics and Science 130

Highest Mathematics Courses Taken by High School Completers 130

Science Coursetaking by High School Completers 134

Computer Science and Technology Coursetaking 141

Focus on Computer Science 142

Participation and Performance in the Advanced Placement Program 145

Demographic Differences in Access to Advanced Mathematics and Science Courses: Civil Rights Data 148

Teachers of Mathematics and Science 150

ESSA and STEM Teachers 151

Previous Findings 152

International Comparisons of Teacher Salaries 152

Instructional Technology and Digital Learning 155

Technology as a K-12 Instructional Tool 155

Research on Effectiveness of K-12 Instructional Technology 157

K-12 Online Learning 158

Research on Effectiveness of Online Learning 158

Transition to Higher Education 160

Completion of High School 160

Enrollment in Postsecondary Education 168

Preparation for College 170

Measuring College Readiness in Mathematics and Science 171

High School Completers Planning to Pursue a STEM Major in College 173

Conclusion 174

Glossary 180

Definitions 180

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 181

References 182

Chapter 2. Higher Education in Science and Engineering 189

Highlights 192

Characteristics of the U.S. Higher Education System 192

Undergraduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees 193

Graduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees 194

International S&E Higher Education 196

Introduction 196

Chapter Overview 196

Chapter Organization 197

The U.S. Higher Education System 198

Institutions Providing S&E Education 198

Carnegie Classification of Academic Institutions 200

Historically Black Colleges and Universities 202

High-Hispanic-Enrollment Institutions: A Typology 203

Trends in Higher Education Expenditures and Revenues 215

Financing Higher Education 223

Undergraduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees in the United States 235

Undergraduate Enrollment in the United States 235

Undergraduate Degree Awards 241

Graduate Education, Enrollment, and Degrees in the United States 250

Graduate Enrollment by Field 250

S&E Master's Degrees 251

S&E Doctoral Degrees 256

International S&E Higher Education 275

Higher Education Expenditures 275

Educational Attainment 275

First University Degrees in S&E Fields 277

Comparability of International Data in Tertiary Education 278

S&E First University Degrees by Sex 281

International Comparison of S&E Doctoral Degrees 281

International Student Mobility 284

Conclusion 291

Glossary 291

Definitions 291

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 292

References 293

Chapter 3. Science and Engineering Labor Force 299

Highlights 304

U.S. S&E Workforce: Definition, Size, and Growth 304

S&E Workers in the Economy 304

S&E Labor Market Conditions 305

Demographics of the S&E Workforce 305

Global S&E Labor Force 306

Introduction 307

Chapter Overview 307

Chapter Organization 307

U.S. S&E Workforce: Definition, Size, and Growth 310

Definition of the S&E Workforce 310

NSF/NCSES's Data on Scientists and Engineers 313

Size of the S&E Workforce 313

Growth of the S&E Workforce 318

Projected Growth of Employment in S&E Occupations 321

Educational Distribution of Workers in S&E Occupations 326

Occupational Distribution of S&E Degree Holders and the Relationship between Jobs and Degrees 329

S&E Workers in the Economy 337

Employment Sectors 337

Patterns of Mobility of New S&E PhDs into the Business Sector 344

Employer Size 357

Industry Employment 358

Employment by Metropolitan Area 361

Scientists and Engineers and Innovation-Related Activities 363

S&E Labor Market Conditions 371

Unemployment 371

Working Involuntarily Out of One's Field of Highest Degree 373

Earnings 375

A Broader Look at the S&E Workforce 382

Recent S&E Graduates 383

Age and Retirement of the S&E Workforce 399

Age Differences among Occupations 400

Age Differences among Degree Fields 401

Retirement 402

Women and Minorities in the S&E Workforce 407

Women in the S&E Workforce 407

Minorities in the S&E Workforce 414

Salary Differences for Women and Racial and Ethnic Minorities 419

Immigration and the S&E Workforce 427

Characteristics of Foreign-Born Scientists and Engineers 428

New Foreign-Born Workers 432

Global S&E Labor Force 444

Conclusion 449

Glossary 450

Definitions 450

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 451

References 452

Chapter 4. Research and Development: U.S. Trends and International Comparisons 456

Highlights 459

Recent Trends in U.S. R&D Performance 459

Cross-National Comparisons of R&D Performance 460

U.S. Business R&D 460

Recent Trends in Federal Support for U.S. R&D 461

Introduction 462

Chapter Overview 462

Chapter Organization 462

Recent Trends in U.S. R&D Performance 462

Measured and Unmeasured R&D 463

U.S. Total R&D and R&D Intensity 464

R&D in the U.S. National Income and Product Accounts 474

Performers of R&D 474

Location of R&D Performance, by State 479

Sources of R&D Funding 481

R&D, by Type of Work 483

Cross-National Comparisons of R&D Performance 488

Comparing International R&D Expenditures 489

Country and Regional Patterns in Total National R&D 489

Country and Regional Patterns in National R&D Intensity 498

Comparisons of the Composition of Country R&D Performance 500

U.S. Business R&D 505

Key Characteristics of Domestic Business R&D Performance 507

Federal Research and Experimentation Tax Credit 516

Cross-National Comparisons of Business R&D 516

R&D by Multinational Enterprises 520

Recent Trends in Federal Support for U.S. R&D 529

Tracking R&D Expenditures: Disparities in the Data Reported by Performers and Sources of Funding 533

Total of Federal Funding for R&D and for Major Agencies 535

Distribution of Federal Funding of R&D, by Performer and Type of Work 540

Distribution of Federal Funding for Research, by S&E Fields 547

Cross-National Comparisons of Government R&D Priorities 553

Government Funding Mechanisms for Academic Research 557

Conclusion 559

Glossary 559

Definitions 559

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 560

References 561

Chapter 5. Academic Research and Development 564

Highlights 568

Spending for Academic R&D 568

Infrastructure for Academic R&D 569

Doctoral Scientists and Engineers in Academia 569

Outputs of S&E Research: Publications 571

Introduction 572

Chapter Overview 572

Chapter Organization 573

Expenditures and Funding for Academic R&D 574

Data on the Financial and Infrastructure Resources for Academic R&D 575

National Academic R&D Expenditures in All Fields 575

National Academic R&D Spending 579

Sources of Support for Academic R&D 581

Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research 588

Academic R&D Expenditures, by Field 592

Academic R&D, by Public and Private Institutions 594

Infrastructure for Academic R&D 603

Research Facilities 603

Research Equipment 612

Cyberinfrastructure 614

Doctoral Scientists and Engineers in Academia 616

Data on Doctoral Scientists and Engineers in Academia 617

Foreign-Trained Academic S&E Doctoral Workforce 618

Trends in Academic Employment of S&E Doctorate Holders 620

Academic Researchers 639

Academic Employment in Postdoc Positions 643

Postdoctoral Researchers 647

Federal Research Support of S&E Doctorate Holders Employed in Academia 647

Outputs of S&E Research: Publications 655

Open Access 656

Bibliometric Data and Terminology 660

Bibliometric Data Filters 667

Publication Output, by Country 672

Publication Output, by U.S. Sector 676

Coauthorship and Collaboration in S&E Literature 680

S&E Publication Patterns, by Gender 692

Trends in Citation of S&E Publications 696

Conclusion 711

Glossary 712

Definitions 712

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 713

References 714

Chapter 6. Industry, Technology, and the Global Marketplace 717

Highlights 721

Knowledge and Technology Industries in the World Economy 721

Worldwide Distribution of Knowledge- and Technology-Intensive Industries 721

Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Research and Technologies 723

Introduction 724

Chapter Overview 724

Chapter Organization 728

Data Sources, Definitions, and Methodology 729

Industry Data and Terminology 730

Patterns and Trends of Knowledge- and Technology-Intensive Industries 734

Knowledge- and Technology-Intensive Industries in the Global Economy 734

New Definition of KTI Industries 736

The Internet of Things 742

Global Trends in Public Knowledge-Intensive Services Industries 745

Global Trends in Commercial Knowledge-Intensive Services Industries 747

Currency Exchange Rates of Major Economies 754

Global Trends in High-Technology Manufacturing Industries 757

China's Progress in Supercomputers 767

Global Trends in Medium-High-Technology Industries 770

Industries That Are Not Knowledge or Technology Intensive 779

Platform-Based Companies 782

Global Trends in Trade of Knowledge-and Technology-Intensive Products and Services 785

Measurement and Limitations of Trade Data 786

Global Trade in Commercial Knowledge-and Technology-Intensive Goods and Services 786

Measurement of Trade in Value-Added Terms 800

Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Research and Technologies 814

Private Investment in Sustainable Energy Technologies 817

Sustainable Energy Generation Capacity 825

Public RD&D Expenditures in Sustainable Energy Technologies 826

Patenting of Sustainable Energy Technologies 828

Conclusion 837

Glossary 838

Definitions 838

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 839

References 840

Chapter 7. Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding 844

Highlights 846

Interest, Information Sources, and Involvement 846

Public Knowledge about S&T 846

Public Attitudes about S&T in General 847

Public Attitudes about Specific S&T-Related Issues 847

Introduction 848

Chapter Overview 848

Chapter Organization 853

A Note about Data and Terminology 853

U.S. Survey Data Sources 855

International Survey Data Sources 859

Interest, Information Sources, and Involvement 866

Public Interest in S&T 866

S&T Information Sources 870

Involvement 875

Public Knowledge about S&T 877

Understanding Scientific Terms and Concepts 878

Testing Alternative Wording of the Big Bang and Evolution Questions 883

Race, Ethnicity, and Factual Science Knowledge 885

Reasoning and Understanding the Scientific Process 891

Pseudoscience 894

Perceived Understanding of Scientific Research 894

Public Attitudes about S&T in General 896

Perceived Promise of and Reservations about S&T 896

Federal Funding of Scientific Research 899

Confidence in the Science Community's Leadership 905

Public Attitudes about Specific S&T-Related Issues 912

The Relationship between General and Specific Attitudes about S&T 913

Americans' Attitudes toward Information Privacy in the World of Big Data 915

Environment 916

Climate Change 920

Energy 925

Genetically Engineered Food 929

Nanotechnology 930

Stem Cell Research and Cloning 932

Animal Research 933

Conclusion 934

Glossary 935

Definitions 935

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 935

References 936

Chapter 8. Invention, Knowledge Transfer, and Innovation 944

Highlights 947

Innovation Occurs in an Interconnected System with S&E as a Key Component 947

Inventions and the Rate of Their Discovery Are Essential Features of a National Innovation System 947

Knowledge Transfer Is an Essential Capacity of the National Innovation System 948

Venture Capital Investment Supports the Commercialization of Emerging Technologies 949

Federal Policies and Programs Have Been Implemented over the Past Several Decades to Reduce Characteristic Barriers to Innovation 950

Innovation Takes Place in Manufacturing, Services, and Other Industries 950

Economic Impacts of Innovation Are Indirectly Measured, and Show Slowing Growth 950

Introduction 951

Chapter Overview 951

Key Terminology 952

Chapter Organization 953

Invention: United States and Comparative Global Trends 955

USPTO Patenting Activity 957

Global Patent Trends and Cross-National Comparisons 965

Technical Standards, Invention, Innovation, and Economic Growth 972

Patent Data Analytics and Terminology 974

Knowledge Transfer 981

Knowledge Transfer Activities by Academic Institutions 981

Knowledge Transfer Activities by Federal R&D Facilities 982

Open Innovation 991

Global Flows of Payments for Intellectual Property: Trade in Licensing and Fees 998

Innovation Indicators: United States and Other Major Economies 1001

Investment in Intangibles 1001

Venture Capital 1004

Government Policies and Programs to Reduce Barriers to Innovation 1017

Innovation Activities by U.S. Business 1028

Concepts and Definitions for Business Innovation Survey Data 1029

International Comparisons in Innovation Incidence 1037

Productivity Growth and Multifactor Productivity 1041

General Purpose Technologies 1047

Small Fast-Growing Firms in the United States 1047

Conclusion 1050

Glossary 1050

Definitions 1050

Key to Acronyms and Abbreviations 1051

References 1053

Appendix. Methodology 1058

Introduction 1059

Selection of Data Sources 1059

Types of Data Sources 1060

Data Accuracy 1061

Nonsampling Error 1061

Sampling Error 1062

Statistical Testing of Sample Survey Data 1063

Glossary 1063

View Data Sources 1065

Table 1-1. Indicators of elementary and secondary school mathematics and science education 81

Table 1-2. Average scores of students in grades 4, 8, and 12 on the main NAEP mathematics assessment, by socioeconomic status and sex within race or ethnicity: 2015 85

Table 1-3. Average scores of students in grades 4, 8, and 12 on the main NAEP science assessment, by socioeconomic status and sex within race or ethnicity: 2015 88

Table 1-4. Average scores of students in grade 8 on the main NAEP technology and engineering literacy assessment, by socioeconomic status and sex within race or ethnicity: 2014 91

Table 1-5. Average mathematics and science assessment test scores of children who were in kindergarten for the first time during the 2010-11 school year and in third grade during the 2013-14 school year, by child and family characteristics 93

Table 1-6. Average TIMSS mathematics scores of U.S. students in grades 4 and 8, by selected student and school characteristics: 2015 103

Table 1-7. Average TIMSS mathematics scores of students in grades 4 and 8, by education system: 2015 105

Table 1-8. Average TIMSS science scores of U.S. students in grades 4 and 8, by selected student and school characteristics: 2015 109

Table 1-9. Average TIMSS science scores of students in grades 4 and 8, by education system: 2015 111

Table 1-10. Average advanced mathematics and physics scores of U.S. TIMSS Advanced students, by selected student and school characteristics: 2015 115

Table 1-11. Average scores of U.S. 15-year-old students on the PISA mathematics and science literacy scales, by selected student characteristics: 2015 119

Table 1-12. Average mathematics literacy assessment scores for 15-year-olds participating in PISA, by education system: 2015 121

Table 1-13. Average science literacy assessment scores for 15-year-old students participating in PISA, by education system: 2015 124

Table 1-14. Highest-level mathematics course enrollment of high school completers, by student and family characteristics: 2013 131

Table 1-15. Highest-level mathematics course enrollment of high school completers, by socioeconomic status within race or ethnicity: 2013 133

Table 1-16. Science course enrollment of high school completers, by student and family characteristics: 2013 136

Table 1-17. Science course enrollment of high school completers, by socioeconomic status within race or ethnicity: 2013 138

Table 1-18. Average high school credits earned in technology-related courses and percentage of students earning any credit, for fall 2009 ninth graders, by sex: 2013 143

Table 1-19. Percentage of principals reporting that their schools offer at least one computer science course, by grade level, size, and locale: 2016 144

Table 1-20. Students who took or passed an AP exam in high school, by subject: 2016 146

Table 1-21. Students taking AP exams, by subject: 2006 and 2016 147

Table 1-22. Access to high-level mathematics and sciences courses among students at low versus high black and Latino enrollment schools: 2013-14 149

Table 1-23. On-time graduation rates of U.S. public high school students, by student characteristics: 2011-15 161

Table 1-24. High school graduation rates, by OECD country: 2014 163

Table 1-25. Relative standing of U.S. high school graduation rates among OECD countries: 2008, 2010, 2012, and 2014 165

Table 1-26. Chapter summary of U.S. performance on K-12 STEM indicators 175

Table 1-27. Summary of long- and short-term trends in U.S. performance on K-12 STEM indicators 178

Table 2-1. Degree-granting institutions, by control and level of institution: 2015-16 198

Table 2-2. Degree awards, by degree level and institutional control: 2015 199

Table 2-3. Distribution of U.S. citizen and permanent resident S&E doctorate recipients whose baccalaureate origin is a high-Hispanic-enrollment institution, by ethnicity and race: 2011-15 205

Table 2-4. U.S. citizen and permanent resident S&E doctorate recipients whose baccalaureate origin is an HBCU, by ethnicity and race: 2011-15 206

Table 2-5. U.S. citizen and permanent resident S&E doctorate recipients who reported earning college credit from a community or 2-year college, by ethnicity and race: 2011-15 208

Table 2-6. Recent recipients of S&E degrees who attended community college, by sex, race and ethnicity, citizenship status, and parents' education level: 2015 210

Table 2-7. Enrollment in Title IV institutions, by distance education enrollment status, control, and level of institution: Fall 2015 213

Table 2-8. Net tuition and fees for full-time undergraduate students by institutional control: 2006-07 and 2011-12 through 2016-17 224

Table 2-9. Primary support mechanisms for S&E doctorate recipients, by 2010 Carnegie classification of doctorate-granting institution: 2015 230

Table 2-10. International students enrolled in U.S. higher education institutions, by broad field and academic level: 2012-17 238

Table 2-11. Retention and attainment of postsecondary students at the first academic institution attended through June 2014, by level of first institution and major field category: 2013-14 240

Table 2-12. Major switching among first-time postsecondary students beginning 4-year colleges and universities in 2011-12: 2013-14 241

Table 2-13. Median number of years from entering graduate school to receipt of S&E doctorate, by 2010 Carnegie classification of doctorate-granting institution: 2000-15 259

Table 2-14. Recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates on temporary visas, by country or economy of origin: 1995-2015 264

Table 2-15. Asian recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates on temporary visas, by field and country or economy of origin: 1995-2015 266

Table 2-16. European recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates on temporary visas, by field and region or country of origin: 1995-2015 268

Table 2-17. North American, South American, and Middle Eastern recipients of U.S. S&E doctorates on temporary visas, by field and region and country of origin: 1995-2015 272

Table 3-1. Major sources of data on the U.S. labor force 309

Table 3-2. Classification of degree fields and occupations 311

Table 3-3. Measures and size of U.S. S&E workforce: 2015 and 2016 314

Table 3-4. Educational background of college graduates employed in S&E occupations, by broad S&E occupational category: 2015 328

Table 3-5. Relationship of highest degree to job among S&E highest degree holders not in S&E occupations, by degree level: 2015 330

Table 3-6. Employment sector of scientists and engineers, by broad occupational category and degree field: 2015 338

Table 3-7. Self-employed scientists and engineers, by education, occupation, and type of business: 2015 342

Table 3-8. Employment in S&E occupations, by major industry: May 2016 360

Table 3-9. Metropolitan areas with largest proportion of workers in S&E occupations: May 2016 362

Table 3-10. R&D activity rate of scientists and engineers employed in S&E occupations, by broad occupational category and level of highest degree: 2015 365

Table 3-11. Scientists and engineers participating in work-related training, by labor force status and occupation: 2015 368

Table 3-12. Scientists and engineers who are working involuntarily out of field, by S&E degree field: Selected years, 2003-15 374

Table 3-13. Annual salaries in science, technology, and related occupations: May 2013-May 2016 377

Table 3-14. Labor market indicators for recent S&E degree recipients up to 5 years after receiving degree, by level and field of highest degree: 2015 385

Table 3-15. Employment characteristics of recent SEH doctorate recipients up to 3 years after receiving doctorate, by field of degree: 2001-15 387

Table 3-16. Employed SEH doctorate recipients holding tenured and tenure-track appointments at academic institutions, by field of and years since degree: Selected years, 1993-2015 390

Table 3-17. Median salaries for recent SEH doctorate recipients up to 5 years after receiving degree, by field of degree and employment sector: 2015 392

Table 3-18. Median salaries for recent U.S. SEH doctorate recipients in postdoc and non-postdoc positions up to 5 years after receiving degree: 2015 396

Table 3-19. Racial and ethnic distribution of U.S. residents, and of employed individuals in S&E occupations, with S&E degrees, and with college degrees: 2015 415

Table 3-20. Distribution of workers in S&E occupations, by race and ethnicity: Selected years, 1993-2015 416

Table 3-21. Racial and ethnic distribution of employed individuals with S&E highest degree, by field of highest degree: 2015 417

Table 3-22. Racial and ethnic distribution of employed individuals with S&E highest degree, by level of highest degree: 2015 418

Table 3-23. Racial and ethnic distribution of employed women in S&E occupations and with S&E highest degrees: 1995 and 2015 419

Table 3-24. Median annual salary among S&E highest degree holders working full time, by sex, race, and ethnicity: 1995, 2003, and 2015 420

Table 3-25. Foreign-born workers in S&E occupations, by education level: 1993, 2003, and 2015 428

Table 3-26. Annual salaries for new H-1B visa recipients, by occupation: FY 2016 435

Table 3-27. Temporary visa holders receiving S&E doctorates in 2010 and 2005 who were in the United States in 2015, by S&E degree field 439

Table 3-28. Temporary visa holders receiving S&E doctorates in 2010 and 2005 who were in the United States in 2015, by country of citizenship at time of degree 440

Table 4-1. U.S. R&D expenditures, by performing sector and source of funds: 2008-15 465

Table 4-2. Annual rates of growth in U.S. R&D expenditures, total and by performing sectors: 1988-2015 471

Table 4-3. U.S. R&D expenditures, by performing sector, source of funds, and type of work: 2015 475

Table 4-4. U.S. R&D expenditures by type of work: Selected years, 1970-2015 484

Table 4-5. International comparisons of gross domestic expenditures on R&D and R&D share of gross domestic product, by region, country, or economy: 2015 or most recent year 492

Table 4-6. Gross expenditures on R&D for selected countries, by performing sector and source of funds: 2015 or most recent year 501

Table 4-7. Gross expenditures on R&D for selected countries, by type of work: 2015 or most recent year 503

Table 4-8. Funds spent for business R&D performed in the United States: 2008-15 506

Table 4-9. Funds spent for business R&D performed in the United States, by source of funds and selected industry: 2015 508

Table 4-10. Sales and R&D intensity for companies that performed or funded R&D, by selected industry: 2015 511

Table 4-11. Funds spent for business R&D performed in the United States, by size of company: Selected years, 2008-15 514

Table 4-12. Business expenditures for R&D, by selected countries and top R&D-performing industries: 2014 or most recent year 517

Table 4-13. R&D performed by majority-owned affiliates of foreign companies in the United States, by selected industry of affiliate and investor country: 2014 521

Table 4-14. R&D performed abroad by majority-owned foreign affiliates of U.S. parent companies, by selected industry of affiliate and host region, country, or economy: 2014 524

Table 4-15. Federal obligations for R&D and R&D plant, by agency: FYs 2007-16 530

Table 4-16. Federal obligations for R&D and R&D plant, by agency and performer: FY 2015 541

Table 4-17. Federal obligations for R&D, by agency and type of work: FY 2015 543

Table 4-18. Government R&D support by major socioeconomic objectives, by selected countries or regions and years: Selected years, 2000-15 554

Table 5-1. R&D expenditures at universities and colleges, by field: FY 2016 576

Table 5-2. Higher education R&D expenditures, by source, character of work, and institution type: FYs 2012-16 577

Table 5-3. Higher education R&D expenditures, by Carnegie classification, institution type, and type of cost: FY 2016 580

Table 5-4. Top six federal agencies' shares of federally funded academic R&D expenditures: FYs 2007-16 584

Table 5-5. Federal funding of academic S&E R&D, by agency and field: FY 2016 587

Table 5-6. Growth of academic R&D expenditures, by field: FYs 1997-2016 592

Table 5-7. Total and institutionally funded R&D expenditures at universities and colleges, by fiscal year, institution type, and Carnegie classification: FYs 2012-16 595

Table 5-8. Higher education R&D expenditures at all universities and colleges financed by institutional funds, by source, fiscal year, institution type, and Carnegie classification: FYs 2012-16 597

Table 5-9. Condition of S&E research space in academic institutions, by field: FY 2015 607

Table 5-10. New construction of S&E research space in academic institutions, by field and time of construction: FYs 2006-17 609

Table 5-11. Tenure status, by field of S&E doctorate holders employed in academia: 1995 and 2015 625

Table 5-12. Tenure status of S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by age: 1995 and 2015 626

Table 5-13. Tenure status of S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by career stage and field of doctorate: 2015 628

Table 5-14. Women as a percentage of S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by position: Selected years, 1973-2015 629

Table 5-15. Tenured S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by sex and field: 1995 and 2015 632

Table 5-16. Underrepresented minorities as a percentage of S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by position: Selected years, 1973-2015 633

Table 5-17. S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by age: 1995 and 2015 638

Table 5-18. Full-time S&E faculty reporting research as primary work activity, by years since doctorate and degree field: 2015 642

Table 5-19. S&E doctorate holders employed in academia in postdoc positions, by demographic group: Selected years, 1973-2015 645

Table 5-20. S&E doctorate holders employed in academia in postdoc positions, by Carnegie classification of employer and years since doctorate: 2015 646

Table 5-21. NIH and NSF research grant applications and funding success rates: 2001-16 650

Table 5-22. S&E articles in all fields, by country or economy: 2006 and 2016 664

Table 5-23. S&E research portfolios of selected region, country, or economy, by field: 2016 675

Table 5-24. Share of U.S. S&E articles, by sector and field: 2016 679

Table 5-25. Shares of U.S. sector publications coauthored with other U.S. sectors and foreign institutions: 2006 and 2016 683

Table 5-26. International coauthorship of S&E articles with the United States, by selected country or economy: 2016 688

Table 5-27. Index of international collaboration on S&E articles, by selected country or economy pair: 2006 and 2016 690

Table 5-28. Relative citation index, by selected region, country, or economy pair: 2014 699

Table 6-1. Knowledge- and technology-intensive industries, by category 726

Table 6-2. Global value added for selected industries, by selected region, country, or economy: 2006 and 2016 780

Table 6-3. Global value added for selected industries, by selected region, country, or economy: 2006 and 2016 781

Table 7-1. Percentage of correct answers to factual knowledge questions in physical and biological sciences, by region or country: Most recent year 888

Table 7-2. Correct answers to scientific process questions: Selected years, 1999-2016 892

Table 8-1. U.S. university patent awards, by technology area: 2002 and 2016 962

Table 8-2. Selected technology areas of USPTO patents 970

Table 8-3. Federal laboratory technology transfer activity indicators, by selected agencies: FYs 2006, 2009, 2012, 2014 984

Table 8-4. Invention disclosures and patenting, by selected U.S. agencies with federal laboratories: FYs 2006-14 988

Table 8-5. U.S. business-sector publications with other U.S. sectors and foreign institutions: 2016 992

Table 8-6. U.S. utility patents citing S&E literature, by patent assignee sector, article author sector, and patent issue year: 2013-16 994

Table 8-7. SBIR and STTR awards funding, by type of award: Selected years, FYs 1983-2015 1020

Table 8-8. Examples of federal policies and programs supporting early-stage technology development and innovation 1023

Table 8-9. U.S. companies introducing new or significantly improved products or processes, by company size and industry sector: 2013-15 1030

Table 8-10. U.S. companies introducing new or significantly improved products or processes, by industry sector and industry proportions: 2013-15 1035

Table 8-11. International comparison of innovation rate, product, and process, by country and firm size: 2012-14 1038

Figure O-1. Bachelor's degree awards in S&E fields, by selected region, country, or economy: 2000-14 28

Figure O-2. Internationally mobile students enrolled in tertiary education, by selected country: 2014 29

Figure O-3. Doctoral degree awards in S&E fields, by selected region, country, or economy: 2000-14 30

Figure O-4. Estimated number of researchers, selected region or country: 2000-15 32

Figure O-5. Regional share of worldwide R&D expenditures: 2000 and 2015 35

Figure O-6. Gross domestic expenditures on R&D, by selected region, country, or economy: 2000-15 36

Figure O-7. R&D intensity, by selected region, country, or economy: 2000-15 38

Figure O-8. S&E articles, by selected region, country, or economy: 2003-16 41

Figure O-9. S&E publication output in the top 1% of cited publications, by selected region, country, or economy: 2000-14 43

Figure O-10. USPTO patents granted, by selected region, country, or economy of inventor: 2000-16 46

Figure O-11. USPTO patents granted in selected broad technology categories: 2000 and 2016 47

Figure O-12. Patent activity index for selected technologies for the United States, EU, and Japan: 2014-16 48

Figure O-13. Patent activity index of selected technologies for South Korea, Taiwan, and China: 2014-16 50

Figure O-14. Exports of intellectual property (charges for their use), by selected region, country, or economy: 2008-16 52

Figure O-15. Early-and later-stage venture capital investment, by selected region, country, or economy: 2006-16 54

Figure O-16. Output of HT manufacturing industries for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2003-16 57

Figure O-17. Output of MHT manufacturing industries for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2003-16 59

Figure O-18. Output of commercial KI services industries for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2003-16 61

Figure 1-1. Average NAEP mathematics scores of students in grades 4 and 8: 1990-2015 83

Figure 1-2. Average mathematics assessment test scores of children who were in kindergarten for the first time during the 2010-11 school year and in the third grade during the 2013-14 school year, by family income level 97

Figure 1-3. Average TIMSS mathematics scores of U.S. students in grades 4 and 8: 1995-2015 107

Figure 1-4. Average TIMSS science scores of U.S. students in grades 4 and 8: 1995-2015 113

Figure 1-5. Average mathematics and science literacy assessment scores of 15-year-old students in the United States: 2003-15 127

Figure 1-6. Percentage distribution of high school students taking an AP exam in mathematics or science, by sex: 2016 148

Figure 1-7. Salaries of teachers in developed countries relative to earnings for tertiary educated workers: 2014 153

Figure 1-8. Immediate college enrollment rates among high school graduates, by institution type: 1975-2015 169

Figure 2-1. Selected average revenues and expenditures per FTE at public very high research universities: 2000-15 216

Figure 2-2. Average expenditures per FTE on research at public and private very high research universities: 2000-15 218

Figure 2-3. Average expenditures per FTE on instruction at public and private very high research universities: 2000-15 219

Figure 2-4. Selected average revenues and expenditures at public 4-year and other postsecondary institutions: 2000-15 220

Figure 2-5. Selected average revenues and expenditures per FTE at community colleges: 2000-15 222

Figure 2-6. Full-time S&E graduate students, by source of primary support: 2000-15 226

Figure 2-7. Full-time S&E graduate students with primary support from federal government, by field: 2015 227

Figure 2-8. Full-time S&E graduate students, by field and mechanism of primary support: 2015 228

Figure 2-9. Share of full-time undergraduate enrollment among U.S. citizens and permanent residents, by race and ethnicity: 2000-15 236

Figure 2-10. S&E bachelor's degrees, by field: 2000-15 243

Figure 2-11. Women's share of S&E bachelor's degrees, by field: 2000-15 244

Figure 2-12. Share of S&E bachelor's degrees among U.S. citizens and permanent residents, by race and ethnicity: 2000-15 246

Figure 2-13. S&E master's degrees, by field: 2000-15 252

Figure 2-14. S&E master's degrees, by sex of recipient: 2000-15 253

Figure 2-15. S&E master's degrees, by race, ethnicity, and citizenship: 2000-15 255

Figure 2-16. S&E doctoral degrees earned in U.S. universities, by field: 2000-15 257

Figure 2-17. S&E doctoral degrees earned by U.S. citizen and permanent resident underrepresented minorities, by race and ethnicity: 2000-15 261

Figure 2-18. S&E doctoral degrees, by race, ethnicity, and citizenship: 2000-15 262

Figure 2-19. U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients, by selected Asian country or economy of origin: 1995-2015 267

Figure 2-20. U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients, by selected European country: 1995-2015 269

Figure 2-21. U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients from Europe, by region: 1995-2015 270

Figure 2-22. U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients from Canada, Mexico, and Brazil: 1995-2015 271

Figure 2-23. Attainment of bachelor's or higher degrees, by country and age group: 2015 276

Figure 2-24. First university natural sciences and engineering degrees, by selected country or economy: 2000-14 280

Figure 2-25. Natural sciences and engineering doctoral degrees, by selected country: 2000-14 283

Figure 2-26. Internationally mobile students enrolled in tertiary education, by selected country: 2014 287

Figure 3-1. Employment in S&E occupations, by broad occupational category: 2015 and 2016 316

Figure 3-2. S&E degrees among college graduates, by field and level of highest degree: 2015 317

Figure 3-3. Individuals employed in S&E occupations in the United States: Selected years, 1960-2015 319

Figure 3-4. Average annual growth in the total number of employed individuals with highest degree in S&E, by field and level of highest degree: 2003-15 320

Figure 3-5. Educational attainment, by type of occupation: 2015 327

Figure 3-6. Occupational distribution of scientists and engineers, by broad field of highest degree: 2015 331

Figure 3-7. Occupational distribution of S&E highest degree holders, by field of highest degree: 2015 332

Figure 3-8. S&E degree holders working in S&E occupations, by level and field of S&E highest degree: 2015 333

Figure 3-9. S&E degree holders employed in jobs related to highest degree, by level of and years since highest degree: 2015 334

Figure 3-10. S&E highest degree holders, by degree level and employment sector: 2015 339

Figure 3-11. Broad S&E occupational categories, by employment sector: 2015 340

Figure 3-12. Scientists and engineers employed in the business sector, by employer size: 2015 358

Figure 3-13. Employed scientists and engineers with R&D activity, by broad field of highest degree and broad occupational category: 2015 364

Figure 3-14. Employed SEH doctorate holders with R&D activity, by years since doctoral degree: 2015 366

Figure 3-15. Unemployment rates of S&E highest degree holders, by level of and years since highest degree: 2015 372

Figure 3-16. Unemployment rate, by selected groups: 1990-2015 373

Figure 3-17. S&E highest degree holders working involuntarily out of field, by field of and years since highest degree: 2015 375

Figure 3-18. Median salaries for employed, college-educated individuals, by broad field of and years since highest degree: 2015 379

Figure 3-19. Median salaries for S&E highest degree holders, by broad field of and years since highest degree: 2015 380

Figure 3-20. Median salaries for S&E highest degree holders, by level of and years since highest degree: 2015 381

Figure 3-21. Recent U.S. SEH doctorate recipients in postdoc positions, by field of and years since doctorate: 2015 395

Figure 3-22. Age distribution of scientists and engineers in the labor force, by sex: 1993 and 2015 400

Figure 3-23. Age distribution of employed scientists and engineers, by broad occupational category and broad field of highest degree: 2015 402

Figure 3-24. Older scientists and engineers who work full time, by age and highest degree level: 2015 404

Figure 3-25. Older scientists and engineers who report not working because of retirement, by age and highest degree level: 2015 405

Figure 3-26. Women in the workforce and in S&E: 1993 and 2015 408

Figure 3-27. Women in S&E occupations: 1993-2015 410

Figure 3-28. Employed women with highest degree in S&E, by degree level: 1993-2015 412

Figure 3-29. Highest degree holders in S&E not in the labor force, by sex and age: 2015 413

Figure 3-30. Estimated salary differences between women and men with highest degree in S&E employed full time, controlling for selected characteristics, by degree level: 2015 423

Figure 3-31. Estimated salary differences between minorities and whites and Asians with highest degree in S&E employed full time, controlling for selected characteristics, by degree level: 2015 424

Figure 3-32. Foreign-born scientists and engineers employed in S&E occupations, by highest degree level and broad S&E occupational category: 2015 429

Figure 3-33. Foreign-born individuals with highest degree in S&E living in the United States, by place of birth: 2015 431

Figure 3-34. Temporary work visas issued in categories with many high-skill workers: FYs 1991-2015 433

Figure 3-35. Plans at graduation of foreign recipients of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees to stay in the United States, by year of doctorate: 1995-2015 437

Figure 3-36. Five-year and ten-year stay rates for U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients with temporary visas at graduation: 2001-15 441

Figure 3-37. Five-year and ten-year stay rates for temporary residents receiving S&E doctorates in 2005 and 2010, by foreign support: 2015 442

Figure 3-38. Estimated number of researchers in selected regions or countries: 2000-15 446

Figure 3-39. Researchers as a share of total employment in selected regions or countries: 2000-15 447

Figure 3-40. Gross domestic expenditures on R&D (GERD) per researcher in selected regions or countries: 2000-15 449

Figure 4-1. U.S. R&D, by performing sector and source of funds: 1953-2015 467

Figure 4-2. Year-to-year changes in U.S. R&D expenditures, by performing sector: 2010-15 469

Figure 4-3. Ratio of U.S. R&D to gross domestic product, by roles of federal, business, and other nonfederal funding for R&D: 1953-2015 473

Figure 4-4. U.S. total R&D expenditures, by source of funds: 1953-2015 482

Figure 4-5. Global R&D expenditures, by region: 2015 490

Figure 4-6. Gross domestic expenditures on R&D, by the United States, the EU, and selected other countries: 1981-2015 497

Figure 4-7. Gross domestic expenditures on R&D as a share of gross domestic product, by the United States, the EU, and selected other countries: 1981-2015 499

Figure 4-8. Federal obligations for R&D and R&D plant: FYs 1980-2016 536

Figure 4-9. Federal obligations for R&D and R&D plant, current versus constant dollars: FYs 1980-2016 537

Figure 4-10. Federal obligations for R&D and R&D plant, by selected agencies: FYs 2007-16 539

Figure 4-11. Federal obligations for R&D, by agency and type of work: FY 2015 544

Figure 4-12. Federal obligations for research, by agency and major S&E field: FY 2015 548

Figure 5-1. Academic R&D expenditures, by source of funding: FYs 1972-2016 582

Figure 5-2. Federal and nonfederal funding of academic R&D expenditures: FYs 1997-2016 583

Figure 5-3. Federally financed academic R&D expenditures, by agency and S&E field: FY 2016 585

Figure 5-4. Sources of R&D funding for public and private academic institutions: FY 2016 599

Figure 5-5. Share of academic R&D, by institution rank in R&D expenditures: FYs 1997-2016 600

Figure 5-6. Change in S&E research space in academic institutions, by 2-year period: FYs 1988-2015 604

Figure 5-7. Research space at academic institutions, by S&E field: FYs 2007 and 2015 606

Figure 5-8. Current fund expenditures for S&E research equipment at academic institutions, by selected S&E field: FYs 2006-16 613

Figure 5-9. S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by type of position: 1973-2015 622

Figure 5-10. S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by field: Selected years, 1973-2015 623

Figure 5-11. Tenure status of S&E doctorate holders employed in academia: 1995-2015 624

Figure 5-12. Women as a percentage of S&E doctorate holders employed full time in academia, by academic rank: Selected years, 1973-2015 630

Figure 5-13. Women as a percentage of younger and older S&E doctorate holders employed full time in academia, by academic rank: 2015 631

Figure 5-14. Black, Hispanic, and Asian S&E doctorate holders employed in academia as a percentage of full-time faculty positions, by sex: 2003 and 2015 634

Figure 5-15. Tenure status of underrepresented minority S&E doctorate holders employed in academia: 2003 and 2015 635

Figure 5-16. U.S.-trained S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by birthplace: 1973-2015 637

Figure 5-17. Full-time faculty ages 65-75 at research universities and other higher education institutions: 1973-2015 639

Figure 5-18. Primary work activity of full-time doctoral S&E faculty: Selected years, 1973-2015 641

Figure 5-19. S&E doctorate holders employed in academia in a postdoctoral position, by S&E degree field: Selected years, 1973-2015 644

Figure 5-20. S&E doctorate holders employed in very high research activity institutions with federal research support, by sex, race, and ethnicity: 2015 649

Figure 5-21. Early career S&E doctorate holders employed in full-time faculty positions with federal support, by field: 1991 and 2015 652

Figure 5-22. S&E articles, by global share of selected region, country, or economy: 2006-16 673

Figure 5-23. U.S. academic and nonacademic S&E articles: 2003-16 677

Figure 5-24. Share of world articles in all fields with authors from multiple institutions, domestic-only institutions, and international coauthorship: 2006 and 2016 681

Figure 5-25. Share of world S&E articles with international collaboration, by S&E field: 2006 and 2016 685

Figure 5-26. Share of S&E articles internationally coauthored, by selected region, country, or economy: 2006 and 2016 686

Figure 5-27. Share of citations to selected region, country, or economy that are received from authors abroad: 1996-2014 697

Figure 5-28. Average relative citations, by region, country, or economy: 1996-2014 702

Figure 5-29. Average relative citations for the United States, by S&E field: 2004 and 2014 703

Figure 5-30. Share of S&E publications in the top 1% of most cited publications, by selected region, country, or economy: 2004-14 705

Figure 5-31. S&E publication output in the top 1% of cited publications, by selected region, country, or economy: 2004-14 707

Figure 5-32. Average relative citations for U.S. S&E articles, by sector: 2004-14 709

Figure 6-1. Global KTI industries, by output and share of GDP: 2016 735

Figure 6-2. Selected industry category share of GDP of developed and developing economies: 2016 738

Figure 6-3. Output of KTI industries as a share of the GDP of selected countries or economies: 2016 740

Figure 6-4. ICT business spending as a share of selected industry categories for selected countries or economies: 2016 744

Figure 6-5. Output of education and health care for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2003-16 745

Figure 6-6. Output of commercial KI services for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2003-16 748

Figure 6-7. U.S. employment in commercial KI services: 2006-16 749

Figure 6-8. U.S. KTI industry share of U.S. business R&D spending, industry output, and industry employment: 2014 750

Figure 6-9. Growth in real GDP, by selected region, country, or economy: 2009-16 751

Figure 6-10. Global value-added shares of selected service industries for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2016 752

Figure 6-11. Output of HT manufacturing industries for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2003-16 758

Figure 6-12. U.S. employment in HT manufacturing industries: 2006-16 760

Figure 6-13. HT manufacturing industries of selected regions, countries, or economies: 2016 762

Figure 6-14. Annual change in value-added output of selected manufacturing industries in China: 2010-15 764

Figure 6-15. Global share of selected regions, countries, or economies in ICT manufacturing industries: 2016 765

Figure 6-16. Output of MHT manufacturing industries for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2003-16 771

Figure 6-17. Manufacturing facilities of General Motors, Toyota, and Volkswagen, by selected region, country, or economy: 2016 772

Figure 6-18. Output of motor vehicles and parts industry for selected regions, countries, or economies: 2003-16 774

Figure 6-19. Global share of selected regions, countries, or economies of MHT manufacturing industries: 2016 776

Figure 6-20. U.S. employment in MHT manufacturing industries: 2006-16 778

Figure 6-21. Global exports of commercial KTI products and services: 2008-16 787

Figure 6-22. Commercial KI service exports, by selected region, country, or economy: 2008-16 789

Figure 6-23. Trade balance of commercial KI services, by selected region, country, or economy: 2008-16 790

Figure 6-24. U.S. and EU commercial KI services trade, by category: 2016 791

Figure 6-25. China's and India's trade in commercial KI services, by category: 2016 792

Figure 6-26. Exports of HT products, by selected region, country, or economy: 2005-16 794

Figure 6-27. Trade balance of HT products, by selected region, country, or economy: 2005-16 795

Figure 6-28. Trade in ICT products of selected regions, countries, or economies, by selected trading partner: 2016 797

Figure 6-29. Exports of MHT products, by selected region, country, or economy: 2005-16 806

Figure 6-30. Trade balance of MHT products, by selected region, country, or economy: 2005-16 807

Figure 6-31. China and EU MHT trade, by product: 2016 808

Figure 6-32. Trade in motor vehicles and parts of selected regions, countries, or economies, by selected trading partner: 2016 810

Figure 6-33. Japan and United States trade in MHT products, by product: 2016 812

Figure 6-34. Private investment in sustainable energy technologies, by type of financing: 2006, 2010, and 2016 815

Figure 6-35. Government RD&D expenditures on sustainable energy technologies, by selected region, country, or economy: 2005-14 816

Figure 6-36. Global generation capacity of sustainable energy, by source: 2006-16 817

Figure 6-37. Global venture capital and private equity investment in sustainable energy technologies, by selected region or country: 2006-16 818

Figure 6-38. Global venture capital and private equity investment in sustainable energy technologies, by selected technology: 2006-16 819

Figure 6-39. U.S. venture capital and private equity investment in sustainable energy technologies, by selected technology: 2011-16 820

Figure 6-40. Later-stage private investment in sustainable energy technologies, by selected region or country: 2006-16 821

Figure 6-41. Later-stage private investment in sustainable energy technologies, by selected technology: 2006-16 822

Figure 6-42. Cumulative change in later-stage sustainable energy technologies private investment, by selected region or country and technology area: 2013-16 824

Figure 6-43. Generation capacity in solar and wind by selected region or country: 2006-16 826

Figure 6-44. Government RD&D expenditures on sustainable energy technologies, by technology: 2014 827

Figure 6-45. USPTO patents in sustainable energy technologies, by selected region, country, or economy of inventor: 2006-16 829

Figure 6-46. USPTO patents in sustainable energy technologies, by selected region, country, or economy of inventor: 2006-16 830

Figure 6-47. USPTO patents in sustainable energy technologies, by selected technology: 2006-16 831

Figure 6-48. Patent activity index of selected sustainable energy technologies for the United States, the EU, Japan, and South Korea: 2014-16 833

Figure 7-1. Key science and engineering knowledge and attitude indicators: 1981-2016 850

Figure 7-2. Key science and engineering indicators, by selected respondent education, sex, and age: 2016 851

Figure 7-3. Public interest in selected issues: 2016 868

Figure 7-4. Public interest in selected science-related issues: 1981-2016 869

Figure 7-5. Primary source respondents used to learn about current news events, science and technology, and specific scientific issues: 2016 871

Figure 7-6. Primary source respondents used to learn about current news events, science and technology, and specific scientific issues: 2001-16 873

Figure 7-7. Mean number of correct answers to trend factual knowledge of science scale: 1992-2016 879

Figure 7-8. Correct answers to trend factual knowledge of science scale, by respondent characteristic: 2016 881

Figure 7-9. Understanding scientific inquiry, by respondent characteristic: 2016 893

Figure 7-10. Public assessment of scientific research: 1979-2016 897

Figure 7-11. Public opinion on whether government should fund basic scientific research: 1985-2016 900

Figure 7-12. Public assessment of amount of spending for scientific research: 1981-2016 902

Figure 7-13. Public attitudes toward spending in various policy areas: 2016 904

Figure 7-14. Public confidence in institutional leaders, by type of institution: 2016 906

Figure 7-15. Public confidence in institutional leaders, by selected institution: 1973-2016 907

Figure 7-16. Public views about scientists: Selected years, 1983-2016 908

Figure 7-17. Concern about specific environmental issues: 1989-2017 917

Figure 7-18. Perceived danger of specific health and environmental issues: Selected years, 1993-2016 919

Figure 7-19. Belief in global warming and confidence in that belief: 1989-2017 922

Figure 7-20. Views on nuclear energy: 1994-2017 927

Figure 7-21. Views on nanotechnology: 2008, 2010, 2016 931

Figure 8-1. For companies that performed or funded R&D, shares rating intellectual property as being very or somewhat important: 2011 956

Figure 8-2. USPTO patents granted, by selected U.S. industry: 2015 958

Figure 8-3. USPTO patents granted to U.S. and non-U.S. academic institutions: 1996-2016 960

Figure 8-4. U.S. academic patents, by selected technology area, 5-year averages: 2002-16 964

Figure 8-5. USPTO patents granted, by selected region, country, or economy of inventor: 2006-16 965

Figure 8-6. USPTO patents granted in selected broad technology categories: 2006 and 2016 967

Figure 8-7. USPTO patents granted, by selected country or economy of inventor: 2006-16 968

Figure 8-8. Patent activity index for selected technologies for the United States, the EU, and Japan: 2014-16 976

Figure 8-9. Patent activity index of selected technologies for South Korea, Taiwan, and China: 2014-16 979

Figure 8-10. U.S. university patenting activities: 2003-15 982

Figure 8-11. Citations of U.S. S&E articles in U.S. patents, by selected S&E article field: 2016 996

Figure 8-12. Citation of U.S. S&E articles in USPTO patents, by selected S&E field and article author sector: 2016 997

Figure 8-13. Exports of intellectual property (charges for their use), by selected region, country, or economy: 2008-16 999

Figure 8-14. Private investment in intangibles, by type, for the manufacturing sector: 1987-2015 1002

Figure 8-15. Private investment in intangibles, by type, for the nonmanufacturing sector: 1987-2015 1003

Figure 8-16. Global venture capital investment, by financing stage: 2006-16 1005

Figure 8-17. Seed-stage venture capital investment, by selected country or economy: 2006-16 1006

Figure 8-18. Global seed-stage venture capital investment: 2006-16 1007

Figure 8-19. U.S. seed-stage venture capital investment, by selected industry: 2011-16 1008

Figure 8-20. U.S. seed-stage venture capital investment, by selected industry: 2013 and 2016 1009

Figure 8-21. U.S. early- and later-stage venture capital investment, by selected industry: 2013 and 2016 1010

Figure 8-22. Early- and later-stage venture capital investment, by selected country or economy: 2006-16 1012

Figure 8-23. Early- and later-stage venture capital investment, by selected country: 2006-16 1013

Figure 8-24. U.S. early- and later-stage venture capital investment, by selected industry: 2011-16 1015

Figure 8-25. China early- and later-stage venture capital investment, by selected industry: 2011-16 1017

Figure 8-26. Share of U.S. manufacturing companies reporting product or process innovation, by selected industry: 2013-15 1032

Figure 8-27. Share of U.S. nonmanufacturing companies reporting product or process innovation, by selected industry: 2013-15 1033

Figure 8-28. Labor and multifactor productivity annual growth, multiyear averages, private nonfarm business sector: 1990-2016 1043

Figure 8-29. Contributions to GDP growth, average: 2001-07 and 2009-15, selected OECD countries 1044

Figure 8-30. Share of firms, job creation, and employment from firms 5 years old or younger: 1982-2015 1048

Sidebar Tables

Table 3-A. Bureau of Labor Statistics projections of employment and job openings in S&E and other selected occupations: 2014-24 322

Table 3-B. Doctorate recipients in S&E fields with postgraduation plans for non-postdoc employment in the United States in the business or industry sector, by region of doctoral institution and region of employment: 2001-15 combined 345

Table 3-C. Region and state of doctoral institution and employment of doctorate recipients in S&E fields with postgraduation plans for non-postdoc employment in the United States in the business or industry sector: 2001-15 combined 347

Table 3-D. Doctorate recipients in S&E fields with postgraduation plans for non-postdoc employment in the United States in the business or industry sector, by region of doctoral institution: 5-year cohorts, 2001-15 351

Table 3-E. Doctorate recipients in S&E fields with postgraduation plans for non-postdoc employment in the United States in the business or industry sector, by region of employment: 5-year cohorts, 2001-15 353

Table 3-F. Doctorate recipients in S&E fields with postgraduation plans for non-postdoc employment in the United States in the business or industry sector, by region of doctoral institution: 5-year cohorts, 2001-15 355

Table 4-A. Top 10 states in U.S. R&D performance, by sector and intensity: 2015 480

Table 5-A. EPSCoR and EPSCoR-like program budgets, by agency: FYs 2002-16 589

Table 5-B. Foreign-trained S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by degree field and sex: 2015 619

Table 5-C. Foreign-trained S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, by research and teaching focus: 2015 620

Table 5-D. Number of titles and publications filtered from the Scopus database 671

Table 6-A. Data Sources 731

Table 7-A. U.S. survey data sources 856

Table 7-B. International survey data sources 860

Sidebar Figures

Figure 1-A. ACT-tested 2016 high school graduates meeting ACT college readiness benchmarks in mathematics and science 172

Figure 3-A. Projected increases in employment for S&E and other selected occupations: 2014-24 324

Figure 3-B. Projected job openings in S&E and other selected occupations: 2014-24 325

Figure 4-A. Difference in federal R&D support, as reported by performers and federal agencies: 1985-2015 534

Figure 5-A. Share of publications available in publisher-provided open access and total open access: 2006-15 657

Figure 5-B. Annual percentage of U.S. publications available in publisher-provided open access and total open access: 2006-15 658

Figure 5-C. Percentage of publications available in publisher-provided open access and total open access, by research domain: 2006-15 659

Figure 5-D. Filtered and unfiltered publications in Scopus, by year: 2006-16 668

Figure 5-E. Filtered and unfiltered publications in Scopus, by region, country, or economy: 2006-16 669

Figure 5-F. Filtered and unfiltered publications in Scopus, by WebCASPAR field: 2006-16 670

Figure 5-G. Trends in the proportion of female authors of S&E publications in Scopus: 2006-15 693

Figure 5-H. Proportion of female authors of S&E publications, by field: 2006-15 693

Figure 5-I. Proportion of female authors of S&E publications, by country: 2006-15 694

Figure 6-A. Growth in output of selected categories of industries, by selected country or economy: 2011-16 755

Figure 6-B. U.S. dollar exchange rate with selected currencies: 2011-16 757

Figure 6-C. Top-ranked supercomputers, by location of region, country, or economy: 2010-16 768

Figure 6-D. Headquarters of platform companies, by selected region: 2015 783

Figure 6-E. Exports of computer, electrical, and optical equipment, by selected region, country, or economy on conventional and value-added basis: 2011 801

Figure 6-F. China's trade balance in the electrical and optical equipment industry, by selected region, country, or economy on conventional and value-added basis: 2011 802

Figure 6-G. U.S. trade balance in the electrical and optical equipment industry, by selected country or economy on conventional and value-added basis: 2011 804

Figure 7-A. Correct answers to factual knowledge questions, by respondent characteristic: 2006-16 (combined) 886