Title page

Contents

6. Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry 12

6.1. Emission trends 12

6.2. Source category description and methodology 23

6.3. Representation of lands 28

6.4. Forest Land Remaining Forest Land (Source Category 4.A.1) 36

6.5. Land Converted to Forest Land (Source Category 4.A.2) 69

6.6. Cropland Remaining Cropland (Source Category 4.B.1) 82

6.7. Land converted to cropland (Source Category 4.B.2) 89

6.8. Grassland Remaining Grassland (Source Category 4.C.1) 93

6.9. Land converted to grassland (Source Category 4.C.2) 102

6.10. Wetlands Remaining Wetlands (Source Category 4.D.1) 117

6.11. Land converted to wetlands (Source category 4.D.2) 122

6.12. Settlements Remaining Settlements (Source Category 4.E.1) 124

6.13. Land Converted to Settlements (Source category 4.E.2) 126

6.14. Other Lands (Source Category 4.F) 131

6.15. Harvested Wood Products (Source Category 4.G) 131

6.16. N₂O emissions from N fertilisation 4(I) 140

6.17. Emissions and removals from drainage and rewetting and other management of organic and mineral soils 4(II) 140

6.18. Direct and Indirect N₂O emissions from managed soils - 4(III) and 4(IV) 140

6.19. Source Category 4(v) Biomass Burning 141

6.20. Spatial identification of carbon 141

Appendix 6.A. Land cover change 149

Appendix 6.B. FullCAM framework 169

Appendix 6.C. The forest productivity index 192

Appendix 6.D. Initial forest biomass 194

Appendix 6.E. Other FullCAM input data 200

Appendix 6.F. Post-1990 Plantations - forest growth model 214

Appendix 6.G. Major vegetation groupings classified by the national vegetation information system 221

Appendix 6.H. Tier 2 forest conversion model 225

Appendix 6.I. Wood flows by sector 228

Appendix 6.J. Wetlands - model parameter values and source documents 234

Appendix 6.K. Biomass burning 258

Appendix 6.L. Activity Data - Annual areas of forest conversions and sparse woody transitions 268

Appendix 6.M. Carbon Stock Accounting 285

7. Waste 288

7.1. Overview 288

7.2. Overview of source category description and methodology - waste 289

7.3. Source Category 5.A Solid Waste Disposal 290

7.4. Source Category 5.B Biological Treatment of Solid Waste 309

7.5. Source Category 5.C Incineration and Open Burning of Solid Waste 311

7.6. Source Category 5.D Wastewater Treatment and Discharge 312

7.7. Uncertainties and time series consistency 329

7.8. Source specific QA/QC 330

7.9. Recalculations since the 2016 Inventory 333

7.10. Source specific planned improvements 335

8. Other (CRF Sector 6) 337

9. Indirect CO₂ and nitrous oxide emissions 338

10. Recalculations and improvements 339

10.1. Explanations and justifications for recalculations 339

10.2. Implications for emission levels 345

10.3. Implications for emission trends, including time series consistency 345

10.4. Planned improvements - national inventory systems 346

10.5. Improvements to activity data 348

10.6. Updates to method and method selection 349

Table 6.1. Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry net CO₂-e emissions, 2017 12

Table 6.2. Summary of methodologies and emission factors - LULUCF sector 26

Table 6.3. Area under land use and land use change and forestry classifications, 1990-2017 (kha) 35

Table 6.4. All land cover representations reported in the land matrix (CRF4.1), 1989-2017 (kha) 36

Table 6.5. Forest classification comparison table 39

Table 6.6. Areas by forest type and age classes in 1990 in multiple-use public forests (ha) 40

Table 6.7. Aboveground growth rates by forest type and age class (t C ha-1 yr-1) 40

Table 6.8. Partitioning of biomass to each of the tree components 41

Table 6.9. Carbon Fraction of biomass for each tree component based on Gifford (2000a and 2000b) 41

Table 6.10. Estimated total area of native forest harvested 41

Table 6.11. Broad silvicultural systems used in the harvested native forests model 42

Table 6.12. Turnover for tree components 43

Table 6.13. Decomposition rates for debris pools used in the harvested native forests model 43

Table 6.14. Tree component annual turnover rates 45

Table 6.15. Debris decomposition rates 45

Table 6.16. Plantation types, wood densities, carbon contents and management regimes 46

Table 6.17. Cumulative area of land converted to plantation from 1940-1989 48

Table 6.18. Symbols used in algorithms for biomass burning of forest land 50

Table 6.19. Comparison of carbon pools modelled under the previous T2 model and the current T3 FullCAM implementation 51

Table 6.20. Temperate Forest wildfire and natural disturbance areas, Australia, ha, 1990-2017 55

Table 6.21. Calculations for the natural disturbance test in States and Territories, 1990-2017 56

Table 6.22. Emissions and removals from forest land remaining forest land (1990-2017) (Gg CO₂-e) 61

Table 6.23. Balancing of natural disturbance CO₂ emissions and removals 64

Table 6.24. Forest land remaining forest land: recalculation of total CO₂ -e emissions (Gg), 1990-2016 68

Table 6.25. Example of the different partitioning of biomass to each of the tree components under different types of plantation species. Estimates are provided for a stand age of 10 years 70

Table 6.26. Percent carbon of tree components - land converted to forest land 71

Table 6.27. Management actions, the FullCAM events used to represent them and the choices available through parameterisation of the FullCAM event 71

Table 6.28. Plantation management database - Time series management regime 72

Table 6.29. Tree component annual turnover rates 73

Table 6.30a. Decomposition rates of standing dead pools 73

Table 6.30b. Debris decomposition rates 73

Table 6.31. Cumulative area of grassland converted to forest land 1990-2016 74

Table 6.32. Cumulative area of croplands and settlements converted to forest land 1990-2017 74

Table 6.33. Cumulative area of wetland converted to forest land 1990-2017 76

Table 6.34. Annual net emissions for land converted to forest land, 1990-2017 (Gg CO₂ -e) 76

Table 6.35. Land converted to forest land: recalculation of total CO₂ -e emissions (Gg), 1990-2016 80

Table 6.36. Calculations used to develop tier 2 coefficients for perennial woody crops 84

Table 6.37. Perennial woody crop Tier 2 coefficients 84

Table 6.38. Net emissions and removals from cropland remaining cropland sub-categories, 1990-2017 (Gg CO₂ -e) 86

Table 6.39. Cropland remaining cropland: Recalculation of CO₂ -e emissions 1990-2016 88

Table 6.40. Cumulative area of land converted to cropland 1990-2017 (ha) 90

Table 6.41. Net emissions from land converted to cropland by sub-category, 1990-2017 (Gg CO₂ -e) 90

Table 6.42. Forest land converted to cropland: Recalculation of CO₂ -e emissions 1990-2016 92

Table 6.43. Wetlands converted to cropland: Comparison of the 2019 submission to the 2018 submission for CO₂ -e emissions 1990-2016 93

Table 6.44. Emissions and removals from grassland remaining grassland, by sub-category 1990-2017 (Gg CO₂ -e) 98

Table 6.45a. Grassland remaining grassland, soil carbon from pasture lands: Recalculation of CO₂ -e emissions 1990-2016 100

Table 6.45b. Grassland remaining grassland: Recalculation of CO₂ -e emissions 1990-2016 101

Table 6.46. FullCAM configuration used for the forest land converted to cropland and grassland sub-categories 103

Table 6.47. Example of the different partitioning of biomass between the tree components under different types of major vegetation group (MVG). Estimates are for mature stands of assumed stand age 100 years 105

Table 6.48. Carbon content of tree components - forest conversion categories 106

Table 6.49. Tree component turnover rates 106

Table 6.50a. Decomposition rates for standing dead pools used in the forests model 106

Table 6.50b. Decomposition rates for debris pools used in the forests model 106

Table 6.51. Cumulative area of land converted to grassland 1990-2017 (ha) 108

Table 6.52. Net emissions and removals from land converted to grassland sub-categories 1990-2017 (Gg CO₂ -e) 109

Table 6.53. Forest land converted to grassland: recalculation of total CO₂ -e emissions, 1990-2015 115

Table 6.54. Wetlands converted to grassland: Comparison of the 2019 submission to the 2018 submission for CO₂ -e emissions 1990-2016 116

Table 6.55. Area and net emissions of sparse woody vegetation transitions, UNFCCC Wetlands remaining wetlands 118

Table 6.56. Annual emissions calculated for aquaculture (use) within the wetlands remaining wetlands category 119

Table 6.57. Annual area and emissions for seagrass removal within the wetlands remaining wetlands category 120

Table 6.58. Wetlands remaining wetlands: recalculation of total CO₂ -e emissions, 1990-2016 121

Table 6.59. Cumulative areas of forest land converted to wetlands (flooded land), and associated net annual emissions 1990-2017 123

Table 6.60. Recalculation of total CO₂ -e emissions, 1990-2016 124

Table 6.61. Area and net emissions of sparse woody vegetation, settlements remaining settlements 125

Table 6.62. Settlements remaining settlements: recalculation of total CO₂ -e emissions, 1990-2016 126

Table 6.63. Cumulative area of land converted to settlements 1990-2017 (ha) 128

Table 6.64. Net emissions from land converted to settlements 1990-2017 (Gg CO₂ -e) 128

Table 6.65. Land converted to settlements: recalculation of total CO₂ -e emissions, 1990-2016 회전 130

Table 6.66. Basic densities, moisture and carbon contents 133

Table 6.67. Destination of material lost from service life (kt C) 134

Table 6.68. Decomposition rates and maximum possible loss 137

Table 6.69. Carbon stock and emissions outcomes (kt C) 137

Table 6.70. Net emissions from harvested wood products 1990-2017 (Gg CO₂ -e) 138

Table 6.71. Recalculations of the HWP inventory 139

Table 6.A.1. Landsat Image sequence 150

Table 6.A.2. CIVP-4 verification results for the 3-class woody vegetation product where no change was indicated 161

Table 6.A.3. Outcomes of operator assessment of CPN classification for CIVP-4 162

Table 6.A.4. outcomes of operator assessments in previous verification programmes 162

Table 6.A.5. Estimated land clearing 1940-1972: comparison of extrapolation methods 168

Table 6.B.1. Mean (± SD) observed and predicted biomass ratios for native forest 175

Table 6.B.2. Collation of decomposition constants (k) fitted to a single exponential decay model of observed in situ decay of coarse woody debris, from South-West, Western Australia 177

Table 6.B.3. Field crops accounting for ≥95 per cent (l), and additional crops for ≥99 per cent (O) of field crop sowings for Australia as a whole, and in each Australian State in 2006 (from Unkovich et al. 2009) 181

Table 6.B.4. Plant partitioning by crop and pasture type 182

Table 6.B.5. Initial litter mass and decomposition rates and carbon use efficiency for crop systems 184

Table 6.B.6. Turnover rates applied to crop and pasture systems 184

Table 6.B.7. Roth-C model including soil redistribution globally fitted decomposition rates and their goodness of fit 185

Table 6.E.1. List of climate and productivity maps developed for land sector reporting in the National Inventory System 203

Table 6.E.2. Agricultural census year data used to provide crop representation for five-year periods 205

Table 6.E.3. Example land use table 209

Table 6.F.1. Range of FPI (P) values on which plantation types occur, the minimum, average and maximum growth rates (Mean Annual Volume Increment, m 3 ha -1 yr -1 ) and rotation length 217

Table 6.H.1. Tier 2 forest coefficients used to estimate emissions and removals from first time forest clearing 227

Table 6.H.2. Biomass accumulated by crop and grass species on cleared land 227

Table 6.J.1. Mangrove (MG) and tidal marsh (TM) parameter values. The values are weighted averages of values obtained from the scientific literature. References are in Table 6.J.4 235

Table 6.J.2. The relative abundance of common mangrove species used in the modelling. References are listed in Table 6.J.5 236

Table 6.J.3. The relative proportion of mangrove, tidal marsh and unvegetated (salt pan, mud flat, tidal flat) within the intertidal wetland. References are listed in Table 6.J.5 236

Table 6.J.4. Source documents for informing the development of species-specific or locality-specific parameter and emission factor values in Table 6.J.1. Full details are... 238

Table 6.J.5. Sources of biogeographical information that informed the relative abundance of mangrove species within mangrove habitats (Table 6.J.2), and the... 240

Table 6.J.6. Species relative abundance within each Coastal Region. References are listed in Table 6.J.8 240

Table 6.J.7. Seagrass model parameter values obtained from the scientific literature. References are listed in Table 6.J.9 241

Table 6.J.8. Sources of biogeographical and relative abundance data for seagrass species within Australian state waters. Full details are provided in the source... 242

Table 6.J.9. Sources of seagrass model parameter values. Full details are provided in Table 6.J.12 242

Table 6.J.10. List of locations subject to capital dredging projects recorded for the period 1990 to 2016. Shapefiles (Kettle, 2017) of each project provide a polygon representing the dredge footprint and area excavated 242

Table 6.J.11. Seagrass habitat extent shapefiles 244

Table 6.J.12. Source documents list for Mangrove/Tidal marsh 245

Table 6.K.1. Assumed patchiness (P, varying between 0 and 1) in various fire zones of Australia. Data sources: Meyer et al. (2015) and Roxburgh et al. (2015) 258

Table 6.K.2. 'Rules' applied when simulating prescribed fires or wildfires prior to 1988; including, typical return intervals, Julian days at which fires occur, area of the fire scar,.. 258

Table 6.K.3. Average growth and die-back (Tonnes DM) simulated for the three different grasses simulated within the fire zones; Perennial grasses in southern fire zones,... 260

Table 6.K.4. Values applied in FullCAM for rates of litterfall of foliage, bark and branches (L, per cent month-1), and the proportional area occupied by grasses (A grass )... 261

Table 6.K.5. Values of calibrated FullCAM parameters for the percentage of live biomass-C that was assumed to be converted to either CO₂ -C or the standing dead... 262

Table 6.K.6. Values of calibrated FullCAM parameters for the percentage of debris-C that was assumed to be converted to CO₂ -C as a result of fire. Two values are provided... 263

Table 6.K.7. Nitrogen to Carbon ratio in fuel burnt (C) 264

Table 6.K.8. Molecular Mass conversion factors 265

Table 6.K.9. CH₄Emission Factors (Gg CH₄-C/Gg C) 266

Table 6.K.10. N₂O Emission Factors (Gg N₂O-N/Gg N) 266

Table 6.K.11. Emission Factors (CO, NMVOC and NOx ) 267

Table 6.L.1.a. Annual areas of forest cleared over the period 1990 to 2017 (kha) 269

Table 6.L.1.b. Annual areas of identified regrowth and resultant net clearing of forest over the period 1990 to 2017 (kha) 270

Table 6.L.2. Activity in ABARES Land Use regions, 3 years to June 2017 (kha) 271

Table 6.L.3. Activity in BoM River regions, 3 years to June 2017 (kha) 272

Table 6.L.4. Activity in IBRA7 regions, 3 years to June 2017 (kha) 273

Table 6.L.5. Annual areas of sparse woody vegetation gains and losses over the period 1990 to 2017 (kha) 275

Table 6.L.6. UNFCCC Forest conversions - National annual areas and related GHG emissions 276

Table 6.L.7. UNFCCC Forest conversions - QLD annual areas and related GHG emissions 277

Table 6.L.8. UNFCCC Forest conversions - NSW annual areas and related GHG emissions 278

Table 6.L.9. UNFCCC Forest conversions - VIC annual areas and related GHG emissions 279

Table 6.L.10. UNFCCC Forest conversions - WA annual areas and related GHG emissions 280

Table 6.L.11. UNFCCC Forest conversions - TAS annual areas and related GHG emissions 281

Table 6.L.12. UNFCCC Forest conversions - SA annual areas and related GHG emissions 282

Table 6.L.13. UNFCCC Forest conversions - NT annual areas and related GHG emissions 283

Table 6.L.14. UNFCCC Forest conversions - ACT annual areas and related GHG emissions 284

Table 6.M.1. Sources of carbon stock data, compilation matrix 286

Table 7.1. Waste sector, Australia 2017, 2018 288

Table 7.2. Summary of methods and emission factors used to estimate emissions from waste 289

Table 7.3. Waste streams: municipal, commercial and industrial, construction and demolition: percentages by State: 2017 293

Table 7.4. Paper consumption, waste generation and disposal: Australia, 1940 to 2017 296

Table 7.5. Wood product production, waste generation and disposal: Australia, 1940 to 2017 297

Table 7.6. Principal data sources and key assumptions made with respect to disposal of paper; waste from HWP production and wood 298

Table 7.7. Additions and deductions from harvested wood products: 2017 299

Table 7.8. Individual waste type mix: percentage share of individual waste streams disposed to landfill 2017 300

Table 7.9. Total waste and individual waste types disposed to landfill (kt): Australia 301

Table 7.10. Key model parameters: DOC values by individual waste type 302

Table 7.11. Key model parameters: 'k' values by individual waste type and State 304

Table 7.12. DOC f values for individual waste types derived from laboratory experiments 305

Table 7.13. Derivation of a weighted average DOC f value for paper 306

Table 7.14. Key model parameters: DOC f values by individual waste types 307

Table 7.15. Methane generation and emissions, Australia: 1990 to 2017 308

Table 7.16. Composting emission factors (t CO₂ -e/t material processed) used in the Australian inventory 310

Table 7.17. Parameters used in estimation of waste incineration emissions 312

Table 7.18. Wastewater treatment plants by level of treatment 314

Table 7.19. Effluent discharged from wastewater treatment plants by type of aquatic environment for 2008 and 2009 315

Table 7.20. Survey data for sludge reuse and disposal in 2008 and 2009 316

Table 7.21. Sydney Water Corporation Wastewater Treatment Plants 2008 317

Table 7.22. MCF values listed by wastewater treatment process 320

Table 7.23. IPCC emission factors for disposal of effluent by type of aquatic environment 324

Table 7.24. Commodity production, coverage and residual wastewater treatment 2017 326

Table 7.25. Country-specific COD generation rates for industrial wastewater, 2017 327

Table 7.26. Methane conversion factors for industrial wastewater emissions, 2017 327

Table 7.27. Methane recovered as a percentage of industrial wastewater treatment 2017 328

Table 7.28. Estimates of implied protein per capita: Australia: 1990-2017 329

Table 7.29. Estimates of implied protein per capita for Sydney Water Corporation: 2008, 2009 332

Table 7.30. 5.A Solid Waste: recalculation of methane emissions (Gg CO₂ -e) 333

Table 7.31. 5.D Domestic wastewater: recalculation of emissions (Gg CO₂ -e) 334

Table 7.32. 5.D Industrial wastewater: recalculation of emissions (Gg CO₂ -e) 334

Table 7.33. 5.C Incineration: recalculation of emissions (Gg CO₂ -e) 335

Table 7.34. 5.B Biological Treatment of Solid Waste: recalculation of emissions (Gg CO₂ -e) 335

Table 10.1. Recalculations in the 2017 inventory (compared with the 2016 inventory) key reasons and quantitative impact 339

Table 10.2. Estimated recalculations for this submission (compared with last year's submissions 1990, 2008-2016) 345

Table 10.3. Estimated recalculations for this submission (compared with last year's submission 1990-2016) 346