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Title page

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9

1. WHY FLOATING SOLAR? 23

1.1. The benefits of floating solar 26

1.1.1. Land-use advantages of FPV 26

1.1.2. Possibility to utilize hard-to-access terrain 26

1.2. The effects of floating installations on water bodies 28

1.2.1. Integration with aquaculture and other applications 28

1.2.2. Reduced water evaporation 28

1.2.3. Water quality and other potential environmental impacts 28

1.3. Technological advantages of floating solar 29

1.3.1. Increased energy yield 29

1.3.2. Synergy with existing electrical infrastructure 30

1.3.3. Complementary operation with hydropower 30

1.3.4. Easier installation and deployment 30

1.4. Challenges 31

1.4.1. Capital expenses 31

1.4.2. Anchoring and mooring 32

1.4.3. Operation and maintenance 32

1.4.4. Electrical safety and long-term reliability of system components 32

1.4.5. Transportation of floats 33

1.5. Comparison with ground-mounted systems 33

References 36

2. TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW 39

2.1. Key components and system designs 40

2.1.1. Floating platforms 40

2.1.2. Anchoring and mooring systems 46

2.1.3. Electrical configuration (central vs. string inverters) 48

2.2. Novel FPV concepts 49

2.2.1. Tracking 49

2.2.2. Concentrated FPV 50

2.2.3. Submerged FPV 51

2.2.4. Active cooling 52

2.2.5. Offshore/near-shore FPV 54

2.3. Hybrid operation with hydropower plants 56

References 60

3. GLOBAL MARKET AND POTENTIAL 63

3.1. Availability of floating solar resource 63

3.1.1. Global irradiation 63

3.1.2. Availability of water bodies 64

3.2. Current market status 66

3.2.1. Albania 68

3.2.2. Bangladesh 68

3.2.3. Belgium 68

3.2.4. Brazil 68

3.2.5. Cambodia 69

3.2.6. China 69

3.2.7. Colombia 69

3.2.8. France 69

3.2.9. Ghana 69

3.2.10. India 70

3.2.11. Indonesia 70

3.2.12. Italy 71

3.2.13. Japan 71

3.2.14. Lao People's Democratic Republic 72

3.2.15. Malaysia 72

3.2.16. Republic of Maldives 73

3.2.17. The Netherlands 73

3.2.18. Norway 74

3.2.19. Panama 74

3.2.20. Portugal 75

3.2.21. Seychelles 75

3.2.22. Singapore 75

3.2.23. The Republic of Korea 77

3.2.24. Sri Lanka 78

3.2.25. Taiwan, China 78

3.2.26. Thailand 79

3.2.27. Ukraine 80

3.2.28. United Kingdom 80

3.2.29. United States 81

3.2.30. Vietnam 81

References 83

4. POLICY CONSIDERATIONS AND PROJECT STRUCTURING 89

4.1. Financial incentives and support mechanisms in selected countries 89

4.2. Supportive governmental policies 90

4.2.1. Renewable energy targets 90

4.2.2. Pilot plants 90

4.2.3. Tenders and auctions 91

4.3. Other policy and regulatory considerations 92

4.4. Business models and project structuring 93

References 96

5. COSTS OF FLOATING SOLAR 99

5.1. Recent disclosed FPV costs 99

5.1.1. Capital expenditure 100

5.1.2. Operating expenditures 105

5.1.3. Residual value/decommissioning 107

5.2. Calculating the levelized cost of electricity 107

5.2.1. Financial assumptions 107

5.2.2. Energy yield 108

5.2.3. System degradation rate 109

5.2.4. LCOE calculation results 110

5.3. Sensitivity analysis 111

5.4. Risk assessment 112

5.5. Conclusion 112

References 114

6. SUPPLIERS OF FLOATING PV SYSTEMS 117

6.1. General overview 117

6.2. Providers of floating technology solutions for inland freshwater applications 118

6.2.1. Ciel & Terre International 118

6.2.2. Kyoraku 122

6.2.3. LG CNS 123

6.2.4. LS Industrial Systems (LSIS) 124

6.2.5. Scotra 125

6.2.6. Sumitomo Mitsui Construction (SMCC) 126

6.2.7. Sungrow 126

6.2.8. Xiamen Mibet New Energy 127

6.3. Providers of floating technology solutions for offshore or near-shore applications 128

6.3.1. Ocean Sun 128

6.3.2. Swimsol 129

Tables

Table 1.1. Milestones in the early development of FPV installations 25

Table 1.2. Floating and land-based photovoltaic systems: A comparison 34

Table 2.1. Advantages and disadvantages of pure-float design 41

Table 2.2/Table 2.3. Advantages and disadvantages of pontoon + metal structures 46

Table 3.1. Floating photovoltaic potential, capacity and energy generation by continent 65

Table 3.2/Table 3.3. Overview of largest (5 MWp and above) FPV installations in the world, ranked by size, as of December 2018 67

Table 3.3. Key elements of SERIS FPV testbed at the Tengeh Reservoir 76

Table 4.1. Examples of financial support mechanisms for FPV systems, 2018 90

Table 4.2. Selected ambitious solar PV targets 91

Table 4.3. Typical financing structures of FPV systems 94

Table 4.4. Selected business models and project finance structures used for FPV structures 95

Table 5.1. A comparison of capital investments: Floating vs. ground-mounted photovoltaic systems 104

Table 5.2. Estimated operating and maintenance costs of ground-mounted photovoltaic systems (fixed tilt), various sources 105

Table 5.3. Financial assumptions used to calculate the levelized cost of electricity for 50 MWp ground-mounted and FPV projects 107

Table 5.4. Representative average global horizontal irradiance and performance ratio, by climate zone 109

Table 5.5. First year's energy output, by climate 109

Table 5.6. Summary of assumptions used in calculations 110

Table 5.7. Results of (before tax) calculations 111

Table 5.8. Overall FPV risk assessment 113

Table 6.1. Nonexhaustive list of inland freshwater and offshore FPV system suppliers as of December 2018 119

Figures

Figure 1.1. General configuration of a photovoltaic power plant 23

Figure 1.2. Examples of floating photovoltaic systems: 150MWp in Guqiao, China (left) and 10 kWp system in Kunde winery, California, United States (right) 24

Figure 1.3. Global installed floating PV capacity and annual additions 25

Figure 1.4. Visualization of a future pilot plant on a hydropower dam in the Swiss Alps in winter (top) and summer (bottom) 27

Figure 1.5. A "PV over water" installation 28

Figure 1.6. Floating solar for fish farming in Singapore 28

Figure 1.7. FPV system for covering of entire reservoir surface to reduce water evaporation 29

Figure 1.8. Deployment ramp (top) and towing of FPV platform into exact location (bottom) 31

Figure 1.9. Deployment of FPV in freezing conditions in Japan (left) and China (right) 32

Figure 1.10. Stackable floats for efficient transport 33

Figure 2.1. Schematic of a typical large-scale FPV system, showing key components 39

Figure 2.2. Typical FPV applications 40

Figure 2.3. Components of floats from Ciel & Terre International 41

Figure 2.4. Sungrow floating platform design (top) and floats (bottom) 42

Figure 2.5. Illustration of Sumitomo's floating platform design 42

Figure 2.6. ISIFLOATING platform design 43

Figure 2.7. Various designs using metal frames and pipes to support PV panels, 4C Solar (top) and Koine Multimedia (bottom) 43

Figure 2.8. Various designs using floats and metal frames to support PV panels, NRG Energia (top), Takiron Engineering (middle), Scotra (bottom) 44

Figure 2.9. Solaris Synergy design: Floats (a), outer ring (b) and an illustration of automatic wind adaptation (c) 45

Figure 2.10. Floating solar membrane cover concept (left) and installation (right) 46

Figure 2.11. Schematics of bottom anchoring (here using so-called concrete sinkers), bank anchoring, and anchoring on piles 47

Figure 2.12. Bank anchoring example 48

Figure 2.13. Sungrow FPV farm with a central inverter on a floating island (left), detailed view of the floating island for the central inverter (right) 49

Figure 2.14. String inverters placed on the floats together with PV arrays 49

Figure 2.15. Illustration of azimuth tracking for an entire platform around a central pile 49

Figure 2.16. The 100 kW tracking FPV plant at Hapcheon Dam, Korea 50

Figure 2.17. Low concentration with V-shaped mirrors for FPV 51

Figure 2.18. FPV with azimuth tracking (1-axis, vertical) in a wastewater facility, Jamestown, Australia 51

Figure 2.19. Sunengy's Liquid Solar Array with dual-axis tracking and concentrators (left), detail of the collector with lens concentrator (right), Whalvan Hydroelectric Dam, Lonavala,... 52

Figure 2.20. Semi-submerged floating thin-film module and the forces to which it is exposed 53

Figure 2.21. The 0.57 kWp MIRARCO Mining Innovation semi-submerged floating thin-film system in Sudbury, Canada 53

Figure 2.22. Active cooling solution 54

Figure 2.23. Swimsol's pilot offshore FPV plant on a resort island in the Maldives 55

Figure 2.24. Ocean Sun's offshore floating platform in Norway, with membrane to hold PV panels 55

Figure 2.25. Satellite image of Longyangxia hybrid hydro/PV power plant 57

Figure 2.26. Before and after hybridization operation on a day in December in a dry year: hydropower output (top) and total system output (bottom) 58

Figure 2.27. Hybrid operation on a sunny day (top) and a cloudy day (bottom) during daylight hours 59

Figure 3.1. Average GHI levels around the world 63

Figure 3.2. FPV capacity potential worldwide based on total surface area available 65

Figure 3.3. Distribution of FPV plants according to their size, as of December 2018 66

Figure 3.4. FPV system (of 305 kWp capacity) in Goias, Brazil 68

Figure 3.5. FPV installation (with a capacity of 13.7 MWp) at the Yamakura Dam in Japan 71

Figure 3.6. Offshore FPV system in the Maldives 72

Figure 3.7. FPV installation (with a capacity of 1.85 MW) in Azalealaan, Netherlands 73

Figure 3.8. FPV system (with 24 kWp capacity) at Miraflores near the Panama Canal 74

Figure 3.9. FPV system in Alto Rabagao in Portugal 75

Figure 3.10. SERIS FPV testbed (with a 1 MWp capacity) at the Tengeh Reservoir in Singapore 76

Figure 3.11. FPV installation (with a capacity of 3 MWp) Cheongpung Lake, Chungju Dam in Korea 78

Figure 3.12. Floating solar installation in Taiwan, China (a typhoon-prone area) 79

Figure 3.13. FPV project on the Queen Elizabeth II Reservoir, United Kingdom 80

Figure 3.14. FPV project in Orlando, Florida, United States 81

Figure 4.1. Coal mine subsidence area in Anhui Province, China, rehabilitated with Sungrow Guqiao 150 MWp FPV system. Left: after construction of FPV system; right: local people... 92

Figure 5.1. FPV investment costs, 2014-18 (realized and auction results) 101

Figure 5.2. Investment costs of floating vs. ground-mounted photovoltaic systems, by component 104

Figure 5.3. Levelized cost of electricity sensitivities vs. base case 112

Figure 6.1. FPV ecosystem (simplified) 117

Figure 6.2. Examples of C&T FPV projects in Japan (left) and Brazil (right) 122

Figure 6.3. Examples of Kyoraku's FPV systems in Japan 123

Figure 6.4. Sangju FPV systems built by LG CNS in Korea 124

Figure 6.5. LSIS FPV installations in Korea 124

Figure 6.6. Scotra's FPV installations in Korea (left is Korea's largest FPV system) 125

Figure 6.7. Examples of SMCC's FPV systems in Japan 126

Figure 6.8. Examples of Sungrow's projects in China 127

Figure 6.9. Examples of Mibet Energy's projects in China 128

Figure 6.10. Offshore floaters in Norway, 50 meters in diameter (left) and 20 meters in diameter (right) 129

Figure 6.11. Swimsol's FPV systems in the Maldives 130

Boxes

Box 5.1. Methodology 108

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