Figure 1. Examples of EV Charging Stations 41

Figure I.1.1. Electrical layout of the half-bridge module 50

Figure I.1.2. Layer details and isometric view of IMS substrate 51

Figure I.1.3. Cross section of DBC (left), IMS (middle), and IMS with TPG (right) 51

Figure I.1.4. Steady-state thermal performance of DBC (left), IMS (middle), and IMSwTPG (right) 52

Figure I.1.5. Transient thermal impedance of SiC MOSFET dies placed on DBC (left), IMS (middle), and IMSwTPG (right) 53

Figure I.1.6. Thermal evaluation board (left); assembled substrate with cold plate, interconnects, and SiC MOSFETs (middle); setup for thermal characterization of DBC, IMS and... 53

Figure I.1.7. Thermal imaging results of IMS (left) and IMSwTPG (right) at 250W total power loss and 65℃ coolant temperature. 53

Figure I.1.8. IMS-based half-bridge power module 54

Figure I.1.9. Chip-to-chip and board-to-board interconnect examples with quilt packaging 54

Figure I.1.10. Test sample design for interconnect evaluation 54

Figure I.1.11. Fabricated silicon samples with quilt nodules 55

Figure I.2.1. A standard 3-phase inverter-based drive 57

Figure I.2.2. Segmented inverter-based drive 57

Figure I.2.3. Rearrangement of the segmented inverter-based drive 58

Figure I.2.4. PWM schemes for the segmented inverter-based drive to reduce the DC bus ripple current: (a) phase-shifted carrier-based schemes, (b) space vector modulation with... 58

Figure I.2.5. Simulated operating waveforms for the segmented inverter with a capacitor ripple current of 17.5Arms (a) and standard inverter with a capacitor ripple current of 62.1Arms... 59

Figure I.2.6. Comparison of normalized capacitor ripple current (a) and busbar current (b) vs. modulation index for 3-phase and segmented inverters at various power factors 60

Figure I.2.7. Block diagram for a 5-phase inverter (a) and simulation waveforms for switching at m=0.65 and pf=0.9 (b) 60

Figure I.2.8. Block diagram (a) and simulation waveforms for a symmetrical 6-phase inverter at m=0.65 and pf=0.9 (b) 61

Figure I.2.9. Block diagram (a) and simulation results for an asymmetrical 6-phase inverter at m=0.65 and pf=0.9 (b) 61

Figure I.2.10. Block diagram for driving cycle-based DC bus capacitor life-expectancy prediction and sizing tools 62

Figure I.2.11. Modeling results for a film capacitor under US06 driving cycle (left) and FUDDS (right) 62

Figure I.2.12. Inverter power stage design (left) and power module baseplate temperature profile (right) 63

Figure I.3.1. Nine-magnet permanent magnet array for accurate 3-axis demagnetization testing of low-energy- product and HRE-free permanent magnets. Two 3-axis magnetic field... 66

Figure I.3.2. Simulation comparison of single cubic magnet measurement versus nine-magnet array measurement. The intrinsic curve is the permanent magnet data input into the... 66

Figure I.3.3. One-eight section cutaway simulation of the optimized permanent magnet testing fixture. The peak aperture airgap flux density is 1.8T with uniformity of better than 1%... 68

Figure I.3.4. Disassembled permanent magnet array assembly 68

Figure I.3.5. Permanent magnet test fixture subassemblies and components; (Left) One of the two excitation coils after removal from bobbin. (Center) ferromagnetic yoke with excitation... 69

Figure I.3.6. Complete permanent magnet testing system including power supply, inverter, magnetic field sensors, current sensors, and oscilloscope 69

Figure I.3.7. Comparison of measured AlNiCo 8HC hard and easy axis magnetization characteristics; (Right) normal curves, (left) intrinsic curves. A computed estimate of the expected... 70

Figure I.4.1. Proposed rotary transformer-based excitation system with resonant compensation only on the primary side 73

Figure I.4.2. Robustness of the field current against the variation of field winding resistance due to temperature (for a temperature swing from −50 to 150℃) 73

Figure I.4.3. Resistance of the HRE-free outer rotor SPM to demagnetization under 3-phase short circuit at 20,000rpm 74

Figure I.4.4. Mechanical assembly and stress analysis at 20,000rpm 75

Figure I.4.5. AC loss in winding and eddy current loss in permanent magnets at 100kW and 20,000rpm operation 78

Figure I.4.6. Thermal simulation results at 20krpm with high thermal conductivity winding potting, winding spray cooling, slot wedge liquid cooling, and rotor liquid cooling (Refer to... 79

Figure I.4.7. Analyzed motor topologies 79

Figure I.4.8. Impact of winding conductivity on the motor active volume 80

Figure I.4.9. Impact of winding conductivity on the speed range and efficiency 80

Figure I.5.1. Motor and inverter integration techniques: (a) radial housing mount, (b) radial stator mount, (c) axial endplate mount, (d) axial stator mount 83

Figure I.5.2. One-sixth of 2016 BMW-i3 stator 84

Figure I.5.3. DBC structure for thermal simulation 84

Figure I.5.4. Power loss data: (a) experimental motor power loss; (b) inverter power loss (simulation-based) 85

Figure I.5.5. Identification of required thermal performance of radial stator mount IMD system. htc = heat transfer coefficient 85

Figure I.5.6. Capacitance density of the selected capacitor 86

Figure I.5.7. Experimental setup 87

Figure I.5.8. Change in ESR and capacitance with DC bias voltage (f = 1kHz, T = 23℃) 88

Figure I.5.9. Change in ESR and capacitance of different capacitor technology in terms of frequency, bias voltage, and temperature 89

Figure I.5.10. The volume of the selected capacitor technologies compared with that of a 2016 BMW-i3 450V 475uF film capacitor 91

Figure I.6.1. Schematic illustration of the process flow for producing Cu-CNT-Cu multilayer composite tapes 95

Figure I.6.2. Scanning electron microscopy images and G-band intensity variations on single-walled CNT-coated copper tapes at various inclination angles during ultrasonic spray... 96

Figure I.6.3. Scanning electron microscopy images displaying the shear-induced alignment of CNTs with increased CNT loading on copper tapes 96

Figure I.6.4. (Left) Electrical properties of single-layer and three-layer Cu-CNT-Cu composite architectures as a function of temperature ranging from 0 to 120℃, displaying reduced... 97

Figure I.6.5. Energy diagram showing the density of states for metallic, semiconducting, and Cu-doped semiconducting CNTs (left panel). Z-contrast STEM image of a Cu-CNT-Cu... 98

Figure I.6.6. Cross-sectional schematic illustration of the three topologies of heavy rare-earth-free permanent magnet traction motors 99

Figure I.6.7. Reduction in active volume as a function of winding conductivity for different motor topologies 99

Figure I.6.8. Photograph of the newly designed roll-to-roll CNT deposition system 100

Figure I.7.1. Oxygen vacancy migration under applied bias can lead to degradation of ceramic capacitors 103

Figure I.7.2. The evaluation of prototype devices in a custom testbed can inform both device designers on the strengths/weaknesses of their prototypes, as well as validate device... 104

Figure I.7.3. Schematic for WBG device testbed with embedded motor control 104

Figure I.7.4. The lifetime of DC capacitors can be increased through the implementation of a bipolar switching scheme 105

Figure I.7.5. Design layout for capacitor test setup which allows for stress and evaluation of a population of 40 capacitors under bipolar switching 105

Figure I.7.6. Breadboard of 3-phase DC motor drive power stage (left) and embedded controller (right) 106

Figure I.7.7. (left) Thermal image of one leg of the power stage showing the temperature of power switches (centered at the crosshairs) and gate driver (just below the crosshairs)... 107

Figure I.8.1. Temperature-dependent XRD data of commercially available mixed phase iron nitride powder and its conversion to nearly phase pure Fe₄N 109

Figure I.8.2. 1,6-hexanediamine 110

Figure I.8.3. N,N-diglycidyl-4-glycidyloxyaniline 110

Figure I.8.4. Magnetic composite toroidal cores wound for B-H analysis 110

Figure I.8.5. B-H hysteresis loop for a magnetic composite toroid. This hysteresis loop was collected at a frequency of 10kHz 111

Figure I.8.6. 3D printed magnetic composite rotor (1/6 of total rotor design) 111

Figure I.8.7. 4-aminophenyl sulfone 112

Figure I.8.8. Three differently-sized magnetic composite rotor teeth and a magnetic composite toroid 112

Figure I.9.1. Comparison of power loss in SiC MPS, GaN PiN, and GaN JBS diodes showing (left) preferred device as a function of voltage and frequency at 50% duty cycle, and (right)... 116

Figure I.9.2. Comparison of Ron in MOSFETs made in Silicon, SiC, and GaN showing (left) the device structure and (right) the predicted results 117

Figure I.9.3. Circuit topology for co-optimization 117

Figure I.9.4. Candidate design considers a flat integrated form factor that includes module and DC link capacitor 118

Figure I.9.5. Module volume estimate as a function of voltage and frequency for Ceramic X7R and Ceralink Capacitors 118

Figure I.9.6. Co-optimization results for (left) 10kW boost converter and (right) 100kW inverter module + capacitor 119

Figure I.10.1. (top) Schematic drawing of JBS diode. (bottom) Schematic drawing of Trench MOSFET 121

Figure I.10.2. Simulated reverse-bias curves of GaN Schottky diodes using various transport models (courtesy of Lehigh University) 122

Figure I.10.3. Schematic drawings of (top) trench MOSFET and (bottom) double-well MOSFET 123

Figure I.10.4. (top) IV curves of GaN Schottby Barrier Diodes, and (bottom) extracted ideality factors of the same diodes 124

Figure I.10.5. (top row) Simlulated breakdown voltage and (bottom row) on-resistance of GaN JBS diodes. Left column is a design with a narrow current-carrying channel, while right... 125

Figure I.10.6. Simulated Baliga Figure of Merit for JBS diodes with three different p-layer widths 125

Figure I.10.7. TCAD simulations of D-MOSFETS, examine four design parameters: (top left) JFET region width, epilayer (drift layer) doping (top right), current spreading layer doping... 126

Figure I.10.8. (left) Schematic drawing of T-MOSFET. (middle) Simulated internal electric field of the same device. (right) simulated breakdown characteristic of the same device 126

Figure I.11.1. A traditional power electronics package (left), and double-sided-cooled power electronics packages from Toyota and General Motors (right) 130

Figure I.11.2. Power device within a second-generation Chevy Volt (left), and example double-sided cooling structure (right) 131

Figure I.11.3. Traditional package with metalized polyimide substrate (left), and with polyimide substrate bonded directly to baseplate/heat exchanger with no bottom metallization... 132

Figure I.11.4. Double-sided cooled package with polyimide substrate (left), and with stacked devices in a 3D package design (right) 132

Figure I.11.5. Manufacturing process for a traditional power electronics module (top), and a simplified process for the novel power electronics package (bottom) 133

Figure I.11.6. Sample design with QP 134

Figure I.12.1. Overview of ASTM D5470 method for measuring the thermal resistance of a sample placed between two metering blocks 138

Figure I.12.2. Example analysis for locating temperature measurement locations within bottom metering block. Example temperature profile through metering block showing uniform... 139

Figure I.12.3. Example analysis for including a copper spreader to the metering block with different metering block materials. Drawing of metering block with copper spreader (left)... 140

Figure I.12.4. Constructed experimental hardware inside environmental chamber 141

Figure I.13.1. Electric motor and power electronics integration concepts: (a) Separate enclosures for motor and power electronics, (b) Power electronics mounted or distributed... 144

Figure I.13.2. Experimental setup for jet impingement heat transfer characterization: (a) General view of large fluid test loop, (b) Large fluid test loop schematic 144

Figure I.13.3. Electric machine with mounted heat target assembly within the end-windings (Computer-aided design (CAD) model by Emily Cousineau, NREL) 145

Figure I.13.4. FEA thermal simulations of a single slot of stator windings in ANSYS: (a) Heat flux distribution, (b) Temperature distribution 145

Figure I.13.5. ATF jet impingement on heated target 146

Figure I.13.6. Experimentally measured convective heat transfer coefficients for 50℃ ATF at various jet impingement velocities and cooled-surface temperatures 147

Figure I.13.7. CFD modeling of orifice and fan-shaped jet impingement on heated copper target 147

Figure I.14.1. Pressureless sintering profile at VT (left) and NREL (right) 151

Figure I.14.2. Circular coupons (Φ25.4mm) for reliability evaluation - Cu (bottom) bonded to Invar (top) using sintered silver 152

Figure I.14.3. C-SAM images of pressureless sintered silver samples fabricated at VT (left and center) and NREL (right) 152

Figure I.14.4. Pressure-assisted sintering profile 152

Figure I.14.5. C-SAM images of pressure-assisted sintered silver samples fabricated at VT. Bond diameter of 22mm (left), 16mm (center), and 10mm (right) 153

Figure I.14.6. Round sintered silver samples arranged on a thermal platform for thermal cycling 153

Figure I.14.7. C-SAM images of pressureless sintered silver before (left) and after 10 thermal cycles (right) - Cu-side images (top) and Invar-side images (bottom) 154

Figure I.14.8. C-SAM images of pressure-assisted sintered silver before (left) and after 100 thermal cycles (right), Cu-side images (top) and Invar-side images (bottom) 155

Figure I.14.9. Crack growth in pressure-assisted samples (3MPa) 155

Figure I.14.10. Cross-sectional image of a pressure-assisted sintered silver sample 156

Figure I.14.11. Strain energy density results of sintered silver samples 156

Figure I.15.1. Schematic showing the dielectric fluid cooling strategy for a planar-style module 159

Figure I.15.2. CFD results showing the effects of varying the fin thickness (left), fin height (middle), and the slot jet width (right) 160

Figure I.15.3. CFD temperature contours for the optimal fin and slot jet design using the device scale model. Model predicts 220℃ maximum junction temperature at 716 W/cm²... 160

Figure I.15.4. CFD-predicted flow distribution for the 12 slot jets. A ±5% flow variation is predicted 161

Figure I.15.5. CAD drawing of the heat exchanger designed to cool 12 (25mm²) devices (left). 3D printed heat exchanger fabricated for experimental validation (right). Total volume... 161

Figure I.15.6. Temperature contours for inverter-scale (12 devices) CFD simulations for 2.2kW of heat dissipation (716W/cm² per device) and total flow rate (Alpha 6 fluid) of 4.1lpm... 162

Figure I.15.7. Image of the finned (wf = 0.2mm, wc = 0.43mm, and hf = 4mm) heat spreader (left) and cartridge heater block (middle). FE-analysis-predicted temperatures for the... 162

Figure I.15.8. Picture of the dielectric fluid flow loop fabricated and used to measure the thermal performance of the dielectric fluid heat exchanger. The flow loop can accommodate... 163

Figure I.15.9. Schematic of the 1D transient thermal FEA model (left). FEA temperature versus time results for a simulated short-circuit fault condition (right) 164

Figure I.15.10. Predicted thermal resistance for the double-side-cooled module design indicating substantial thermal performance enhancements compared to the single-side-cooled design 164

Figure I.16.1. Dependence of coercivity on grain size 168

Figure I.16.2. Micromagnetic simulation of the demagnetization field near the permanent magnets in motor 169

Figure I.16.3. MH curves of the bulk magnet prepared using feedstock powders that were ball-milled for different time. The longer the ball milling hours, the finer the particle size 169

Figure I.16.4. MH curves of the assemblies listed in Table I.1.16.1 170

Figure I.16.5. a) the large melt-spinner capable of producing 500 gram thin sheet steel; b) the 10 mm ribbon of 6.5% Si steel prepared using only 10 gram of ingot; c) The new... 171

Figure I.17.1. Simplified SiC CMOS gate driver schematic and layout with programmable drive strength 176

Figure I.17.2. Simplified SiC NMOS gate driver schematic and layout with programmable drive strength 177

Figure I.18.1. Representative interior permanent magnet synchronous machines from optimization Pareto front 184

Figure I.18.2. Pareto fronts to identify target performance gaps using state of the art motor topologies and materials 185

Figure I.18.3. Magnetic only topology optimization, (a) design domain, (b) synchronous reluctance rotor, (c) interior permanent magnet rotor with fixed permanent magnet 186

Figure I.18.4. Synchronous reluctance rotor magneto-structural topology optimization results for (a) formulation I 4,000RPM, (b) formulation II 4,000RPM, (c) formulation I 12,000RPM,... 188

Figure I.18.5. Interior permanent magnet synchronous machine rotor magneto-structural topology optimization with fixed position and size permanent magnet, (a) normalized electrical... 189

Figure I.18.6. Multi-layer IPM rotor verification of the proposed design approach, (a) cross-section of barriers and magnets, (b) flux density distribution at no-load 189

Figure I.19.1. Cross-sectional view of proposed 1.2kV 4H-SiC MOSFETs 191

Figure I.19.2. Optimization of the JFET doping concentration to minimize the on-resistance and electric field in gate oxide and PN junction 191

Figure I.19.3. Optimization of the JFET width to minimize the on-resistance and electric field in gate oxide and PN junction 192

Figure I.19.4. Top view for Mask 192

Figure I.19.5. 1st lot fabrication status 193

Figure I.20.1. AFM scans of (a) AlGaN/GaN on sapphire and (b) AlGaN/GaN on Si 198

Figure I.20.2. in situ curvature measurement during growth 198

Figure I.20.3. Output and gate leakage characteristics for HEMT on sapphire. Device Dimensions: Wg=150μm; Lg=7μm; Lgs=4μm; Ldg=10μm; Lds=21μm 199

Figure I.20.4. Output and gate leakage characteristics for HEMT on sapphire. Device Dimensions: Wg=150μm; Lg=7μm; Lgs=4μm; Ldg=10μm; Lds=21μm 199

Figure I.20.5. Frequency-dependent C-V measurements for samples annealed at (a) 350℃ for 1 min, (b) 350℃ for 10 min, (c) 350℃ for 20 min, (d) 600℃ for 1 min, (e) 475℃ for 10 min,... 200

Figure I.20.6. C-V measurement data collected at 100kHz AC signal. The arrows indicate the direction of the DC bias sweep. Insets show zoomed in area of hysteresis to show changes in... 201

Figure I.20.7. EDS elemental maps showing the spatial distribution of (a) O in the as-deposited sample, (b) Al in the as-deposited sample, (c) O in the sample annealed at 350℃ for... 202

Figure I.21.1. Illustration of steps for commercial stochastic foam characterization 206

Figure I.21.2. Comparison of ERG foam versus AM foam (left) and reduced computational domains (right) 206

Figure I.21.3. Pressure drop per unit length (left) and Nusselt number (right) for the ERG and AM samples 207

Figure I.21.4. Nusselt numbers recalculated with varying TIM thermal conductivities 208

Figure I.21.5. 50mm × 50mm prototype of AlSiC heat sink bonded to AlN and Al foam with liquid header 208

Figure I.21.6. (a) Assemble packaged prototype (b) Liquid coolant loop setup showing essential sensors and DAQ 209

Figure I.21.7. Failed Cu-invar bond 209

Figure I.21.8. SEM and EDS results of Cu-Al bond between a) Cu-Invar coupons b) Invar-Invar coupons c) Cu-Cu coupons 210

Figure I.21.9. (a) Maximum Shaft Torque, (b) Maximum Shaft Power, (c) Maximum Stator Winding Current and (d) Maximum Efficiency, with a temperature threshold of 200℃ and for... 211

Figure I.21.10. (a) Maximum Shaft Torque, (b) Maximum Shaft Power, (c) Maximum Stator Winding Current and (d) Maximum Efficiency, with a temperature threshold of 200℃, a fixed... 211

Figure I.22.1. Comparison in output waveforms of a conventional two-level design (left), and a 9-level, dual-interleaved FCML design (right). The latter are from results in, and illustrate... 214

Figure I.22.2. Top: schematic and current waveforms for a dual-interleaved, 10-level FCML inverter. Bottom: hierarchical control strategy and system diagram of paralleled converters of... 215

Figure I.22.3. Left: measured overshoot of the commutation loop in this design. Right: measured experimental performance of the prototype inverter module across various load... 216

Figure I.22.4. Left: an annotated hardware prototype of the 10-level, dual-interleaved inverter module for this project. Right: a 9-module, segmented inverter paralleled across three... 217

Figure I.22.5. Left: experimental setup showing the thermal test assembly for this air-cooled inverter iteration. Right: CFD results showing relatively a relatively uniform pressure front... 218

Figure I.22.6. Nonlinear simulation of the flying capacitor voltages during dc bus startup 219

Figure I.22.7. Calorimetric test setup used in evaluating large-signal loss characteristics for passive devices. The entire assembly is loaded into a temperature-controlled chamber during... 219

Figure I.23.1. A schematic of the hardware to be developed in this project 222

Figure I.23.2. Summary of recommended high temperature packaging materials for power modules 223

Figure I.23.3. High temperature gate driver IC from Cissoid 223

Figure I.23.4. Air-core inductors 224

Figure I.23.5. The layout design of a 1.2kV, 149 A SiC MOSFET planar module with double-side cooling 226

Figure I.23.6. Terminals of the power module for gate driver and current sensor 226

Figure I.23.7. (a) Equivalent circuit of power MOSFET model, and (b) Current sensing with short-circuit protection and current reconstruction 227

Figure I.23.8. Sensor waveforms (scaled) in comparison to the actual current waveforms 227

Figure I.23.9. Reconstructed current waveform 227

Figure I.23.10. Short-circuit protection 227

Figure I.24.1. Integrated Modular Motor Drive (IMMD) concept 232

Figure I.24.2. IMD Topologies 233

Figure I.24.3. Alternative traction inverter drive configurations: a) VSI excitation; and b) CSI excitation 234

Figure I.24.4. Typical line-to-neutral voltage waveforms for (a) VSI and (b) CSI 234

Figure I.24.5. Typical switch voltage and current waveforms for (a) VSI and (b) CSI 236

Figure I.24.6. Electric machine categorization segregating machine types with and without permanent magnets 236

Figure I.24.7. Flux-weakening performance comparison of the CSI-excited and VSI-excited SPM machines for CPSR=6.25 237

Figure I.25.1. Homopolar AC Machine 241

Figure I.25.2. HAM magnetic equivalent circuit 241

Figure I.25.3. HAM phase MMF waveforms 242

Figure I.25.4. Preliminary HAM Pareto-optimal front 243

Figure I.25.5. Preliminary HAM design 243

Figure I.25.6. (a) Surface meshed linear materials and (b) volume-meshed nonlinear materials for a PMSM model 244

Figure I.25.7. Pareto-optimal front from an MoM-based optimization 245

Figure I.26.1. SiC MOSFET Reliability Issues 247

Figure I.26.2. Key Partnerships 248

Figure I.26.3. Gate leakage current-voltage characteristics at three different temperatures 250

Figure I.26.4. Weibull distribution of vendor E' for four different gate voltages at 28℃ and 175℃ 251

Figure I.26.5. Degradation of the 3rd quadrant ID-VD characteristics for built-in body diode of one selected 1.7kV SiC DMOSFET from each vendor 252

Figure I.26.6. Reverse bias characteristics at gate voltage of VGS = 0V of one selected 1.7kV SiC DMOSFET from each vendor at room temperature before and after stress of the... 252

Figure I.26.7. Time-dependent threshold voltage shifts for (a) positive bias-stress of +20V, (b) +30V, and (c) negative bias-stress of -10V for 50 hours 253

Figure I.26.8. Temperature-dependent (a) threshold voltage values and (b) ID-VG transfer characteristics of device E' and C 253

Figure I.26.9. Block diagram of gate drive circuit 254

Figure I.26.10. Load transient response, Propagation delay waveform, Relationship between the output voltage levels of outputs and switching frequency 254

Figure I.27.1. Design-I 258

Figure I.27.2. Design-II 258

Figure I.27.3. Design-III 258

Figure I.27.4. Short circuit at 18,000rpm 258

Figure I.27.5. Short circuit at 18,000rpm 258

Figure I.27.6. Short circuit at 18,000rpm 258

Figure I.27.7. Slotless motor using thermal plastic 259

Figure I.27.8. Slotless motor using Alumina 259

Figure II.1.1. Variant 1, 2, and 3 rotors shown from left to right 262

Figure II.1.2. Variant 1, 2, and 3 stators shown from left to right 263

Figure II.1.3. Rotor casting simulations for improved Al-Cu interface strength 263

Figure II.1.4. Average rotor bar improvement from baseline (Casting #15) based on pull force. Casting numbers represent different parameters in the design of experiment 263

Figure II.1.5. Cost analysis of Variants 1, 2, and 3. Variant 1 only was estimated to be below the DoE cost target of $4.7/kW 264

Figure II.1.6. Stress life curves for materials "A", "B", and "C" 265

Figure II.1.7. Example of fracture analysis with SEM for material A, sample #2 265

Figure II.1.8. Rotor bar casting sample 266

Figure II.1.9. X-ray CT scanning results from rotor bar sample 266

Figure II.2.1. Illustration of the dual phase structure in a laminate used to manufacture a SynRel machine. The left image shows where the non-magnetic (orange) regions are... 269

Figure II.2.2. Manufacturing sequence for prototypes containing dual phase magnetic laminates 270

Figure II.2.3. a) Fully assembled full-scale prototype motor. b) exterior dimensions of the prototype motor 271

Figure II.2.4. Full-scale prototype motor on a dynameter test stand 272

Figure II.2.5. Measured continuous shaft torque and power output of the full-scale dual phase synchronous reluctance prototype made from the dual phase laminate rotor 273

Figure II.2.6. Measured efficiency of the full-scale dual phase synchronous reluctance prototype made from the dual phase laminate rotor 273

Figure II.3.1. Magnetization vs. applied field at different temperature of the bulk magnet fabricated using the newly developed CIP process. Note that the coercivity increases with... 277

Figure II.3.2. Photo of 5wt% epoxy bonded core after curing. The surface epoxy coat has not been applied 279

Figure II.3.3. Iron loss of epoxy bonded, flake core ring samples as a function of flux density for a number for frequencies (a) 5wt% epoxy, flux area by dimension; (b) 3wt% epoxy,... 280

Figure II.3.4. (a) MgO laminated ring, the bright features are MgO agglomerations. (b) Cross-section optical image of the MgO laminated ring sample, the dark strips are MgO layers,... 280

Figure II.3.5. Magnetic properties of MgO laminated rings. (a) Flux density as a function of magnetic field for both the DC and AC400Hz condition using dimension method; (b) flux... 281

Figure II.3.6. Picture of the prototype rotor (left) and stator (middle), and fully assembled motor 281

Figure II.3.7. Motor test setup at UTRC 282

Figure II.3.8. Comparison between the predicted back EMF results and the actual measurements 283

Figure II.4.1. Organizations That Are Publicly Held and Actively Engaged in the NA EVSE Supply Chain, Ranked by Annual Revenues (Calendar Year 2018) 288

Figure II.4.2. NA EVSE Supply Chain Organizations, By Product or Service Category (Represents 170 organizations, both public and private.) As of July 2019 289

Figure II.5.1. Automotive SiC power module with 900V SiC die 295

Figure II.5.2. Switch resistance: (left) measured through pcb flex circuit (right) measured through module terminals 295

Figure II.5.3. Hardware set-up for the thermal impedance measurements 296

Figure II.5.4. Thermal impedance curves for Vgs=-8V: (left) Zth for switch UHI, (middle) Zth for switch VHI, (right) Zth for switch WHI 296

Figure II.5.5. Equivalent 6th order Cauer impedance network to represent thermal impedances 297

Figure II.6.1. Dynamometer results for bus P1' vs. bus P1. Provided by NREL based on P1' dynamometer testing on May 29, 2019 302

Figure III.1.1. TransPower EDD Battery Electric Trucks 306

Figure III.1.2. US Hybrid Battery Electric Truck No. 1 307

Figure III.1.3. US Hybrid Battery Electric Truck No. 2 307

Figure III.1.4. TransPower CNGH-1 308

Figure III.1.5. Route containing hills during Q4 2018 tests 309

Figure III.1.6. TransPower - CNGH-2 (APU view) 309

Figure III.1.7. (Omit) 309

Figure III.1.8. TransPower - CNGH-2 with trailer 309

Figure III.1.9. US Hybrid LNGH 310

Figure III.1.10. US Hybrid LNGH pulling a container for TTSI 310

Figure III.2.1. CTE/Kenworth Fuel Cell Truck 313

Figure III.2.2. TransPower Fuel Cell Truck in Foreground & CNG Truck in Background 313

Figure III.2.3. U.S. Hybrid Truck: Design to Fabrication 313

Figure III.2.4. Kenworth/BAE - CNG Hybrid System Architecture 314

Figure III.3.1. Mutual verification of simulation and powertrain dyno measurements 322

Figure III.3.2. Fluids box redesign to improve space utilization, ease assembly on truck chassis 323

Figure III.3.3. Consolidation of separate 12V 24V and HVIL fuse relay boxes into one 323

Figure III.3.4. Performance vs. Speed simulation results in different modes including transmission spin losses 325

Figure III.3.5. 1MEV to Powersplit Transient including Hybrid Start 325

Figure III.3.6. 1MEV to Powersplit Transient including Hybrid Start 326

Figure III.4.1. Hybrid System vehicles in Build Shop 329

Figure III.4.2. Complete eAxle System on McLaren Test Rig 329

Figure III.4.3. 1st Design Demonstrator On Real World Commissioning Drive 330

Figure III.4.4. Vehicle, Being Returned to Shop for Adjustments/Updates 330

Figure III.5.1. WXFC project activities 333

Figure III.5.2. Project design and implementation approach 333

Figure III.5.3. System block diagram 334

Figure III.6.1. System level diagram of the proposed architecture for the bidirectional wireless charging system 338

Figure III.6.2. System level diagram of the proposed architecture for the bidirectional wireless charging system 338

Figure III.6.3. System level diagram of the proposed architecture for the bidirectional wireless charging system 338

Figure III.6.4. Primary and secondary coils with their resonant tuning components (a) and Bode 100 frequency response analyzer used for voltage gain characterization of the system 339

Figure III.6.5. Resonant voltage gain of the system using the analytical model (a) and the experimental validation (b) 339

Figure III.6.6. Resonant voltage gain of the system using the analytical model (a) and the experimental validation (b) 340

Figure III.6.7. Experimental test results for G2V mode with 20kW power transfer to the vehicles-side battery emulator: Operational waveforms (a) and power analyzer measurements (b) 340

Figure III.6.8. Experimental test results for V2G mode with 20kW power transfer to the primary-side DC link 341

Figure III.7.1. Odyne powertrain configuration 344

Figure III.7.2. Odyne hybrid architecture 345

Figure III.7.3. Odyne / Oak Ridge HIL powertrain test stand 346

Figure III.7.4. Torqeedo 11.6kWh battery pack 347

Figure III.7.5. Test chassis design layout 347

Figure III.7.6. Completed test chassis and hydraulic test stand 348

Figure III.8.1. ETREE powertrain test cell located at Cummins Technical Center, Columbus, Indiana 351

Figure III.8.2. ETREE alternate battery- drivers side enclosure (shown without cover) 351

Figure III.9.1. NRTC Lab Equipment Set Up with SPIN Rack System 357

Figure III.9.2. Power Analyzer Test Trace Showing Sequential Execution of All of the SPIN Operating Modes 357

Figure III.9.3. SPIN DC Communications Control Module (CCM) with J1772 Combo Coupler Assembly 358

Figure III.9.4. IoTecha EVCC and SECC Card Facilitates SPIN to PHEV DC Charging Communications 358

Figure III.9.5. SPIN Product Concept 3D-Layout including DC CCM and Charging Cable 359

Figure III.9.6. SPIN Application Scenarios being Designed for Verification 360

Figure III.9.7. SPIN Integrated Ecosystem Software Architecture: In-Cloud, On-Vehicle and On-SPIN 360

Figure III.9.8. Combined IEEE2030.5 and DIN 70121 Communications Sequence Diagram 362

Figure III.10.1. Block-diagram schematic of the XFC station 367

Figure III.10.2. Hierarchical control architecture 367

Figure III.10.3. Comparison between full model and estimator for two CCCV cycles at 1C with constant diffusivities 368

Figure III.10.4. Experimental results for open-circuit potential and solid-phase lithium diffusivity of half-cells 369

Figure III.10.5. Prototype module to construct cascaded H-bridge 369

Figure III.10.6. Virtual inertia control scheme 370

Figure III.10.7. Improved performance of the NN-MPC virtual inertia compared to PI controllers 370

Figure III.10.8. Bus voltage and current without (Case I) and with (Case II) reactive power injection 371

Figure III.11.1. System Layout showing the key components: MV SST, DC distribution network, and DC node that contains the DC/DC converter and vehicle interface 373

Figure III.11.2. MV SST Converter topology. The SST is made up of 6 Levels connected in input-series output-parallel configuration 375

Figure III.11.3. [Left] Small-scale prototype of the SST stage used for control validation [Right] Experimental results showing the behavior of the single module connected to an ac... 376

Figure III.11.4. Fault scenarios under investigation 377

Figure III.11.5. [Left] Advanced thermosyphon design and operating principle [Right] First batch of manufactured advanced thermosyphon for breaker B1 378

Figure III.11.6. [Left] IGCT stack for 500 A class breaker B2 with forced air cooling system [Right] Air flow analysis for design validation of cooling system for 500 A class breaker B2 378

Figure III.11.7. Example of high di/dt current transient during a short circuit event 379

Figure III.11.8. [Left] Mechanical design of SS DCCB B1; [Right ] Mechanical design of power stack for unidirectional SS DCCB B2 379

Figure III.13.1. XFC System Architecture 385

Figure III.13.2. Circuit Diagram of Power Module 385

Figure III.13.3. Picture of an SST Module at left, and Charging Controller (Buck) Module at right 386

Figure III.13.4. SST's AC/DC Stage Waveforms (CH1 brown: Vph, CH2 blue: VAC, CH3 purple: VL, CH4 green: IAC) 387

Figure III.13.5. SST's DC/DC Stage Waveforms (CH1 brown: VGS, CH2 blue: VDS, CH3 purple: ILr, CH4 green: VCr) 387

Figure III.13.6. 1-Phase Series SST and Buck Module Test Setup (up to 45-kW) 388

Figure III.13.7. 1-Phase Series SST and Buck Module Efficiency Test Result (up to 45-kW) 388

Figure IV.1.1. SAE J1772 charge connector w/DEVA 394

Figure IV.1.2. SpEC module 2.0 alpha board 394

Figure IV.1.3. Multi-unit sub-meter (w/o current sensors) 394

Figure IV.2.1. ADMM allows groups of distributed computers to jointly solve optimization problems 398

Figure IV.2.2. Charging station demand and net load for an 8,000 kVA distribution grid based on CAISO data 400

Figure IV.2.3. 100 CS show valley filling; net load from 6-10 pm cannot be flattened by reducing charging load 400

Figure V.1.1. 200kW DC EVSE Interoperability Testing 403

Figure V.1.2. BTC Power SLAC-based Communication 404

Figure V.1.3. BTCP DCFC Communication Log 404

Figure V.1.4. Comemso EV Charge Analyzer 405

Figure V.2.1. 350-kW XFC charging a 2014 BMW i3 in INL's Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Lab 408

Figure V.2.2. 350-kW XFC charging a New Flyer 60-foot electric transit bus in INL's Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Lab 408

Figure V.2.3. Efficiency of the 350-kW XFC 409

Figure V.2.4. Charge profile of the 2014 BMW i3 connected to the 350-kW XFC 410

Figure V.2.5. Charge initialization ramp-up characteristics when charging with a 350kW capable XFC 410

Figure V.2.6. Comparison of charge event initialization and power ramp-up: 50kW DCFC and 350kW XFC 411

Figure V.2.7. Power ramp-down at the end of a charge on the 350-kW XFC 411

Figure V.2.8. Schematic of vehicle emulator that uses the XFC's Combined Charging System (CCS) connector 412

Figure V.3.1. Energy envelop of each device and aggregated energy envelop 414

Figure V.3.2. Structure of distributed control with hierarchy 414

Figure V.3.3. Architecture of integrated control system for EVSE and ESS at NREL 415

Figure V.3.4. Computed plots at (a) 9:00am (top) and (b) 11:00am (bottom) of the energy constraints and optimal energy profile (left) and the resulting L2 EVSE power profile plan... 416

Figure V.3.5. Test results of the DCFC control 417

Figure V.3.6. Test results of the stationary ESS 418

Figure V.4.1. Example of a 5-trip vehicle simulation 423

Figure V.4.2. Hosting capacity analysis for four feeders in the MSP region 424

Figure V.5.1. Simulation architecture used in RECHARGE project 428

Figure V.5.2. Caldera charging profiles for PEV charging models in when the PEVs are connected to a 350-kW capable XFC unit 429

Figure V.5.3. Feeder demand profiles when PEV charging not controlled and when it is controlled using the centralized charging control strategy 429

Figure V.5.4. Real and reactive power profiles for Atlanta and Minneapolis used in scenario 1 430

Figure V.5.5. Real and reactive power profiles for Atlanta and Minneapolis used in scenario 2 431

Figure V.6.1. Hosting capacity result for a residential feeder 435

Figure V.7.1. Topology of candidate 1+MW System Architectures 438

Figure V.7.2. (Omit) 439

Figure V.7.3. Expected voltage drop introduced by multiple XFCs in a distribution system 442

Figure V.8.1. Example of a 5-trip vehicle simulation 447

Figure V.8.2. Testing results for IEEE 34-bus system 448

Figure V.8.3. Station load profiles for stations with 30 vehicles/day 448

Figure V.8.4. (a) Deformation of connector after insertion process, and (b) temperature distribution of the connector with constant current 449

Figure V.8.5. (a) A schematic of the pin/socket coupler showing various locations to apply the convective heat transfer boundary condition, and (b) Results of temperature rise variation... 450

Figure V.8.6. Composition of Waste Heat 451

Figure V.9.1. Set of topics covered in the requirements study 454

Figure V.9.2. four station charging mezzanine charging installation at the Daimler bus factory 457

Figure V.10.1. System level diagram of the proposed XFC inductive charging system 461

Figure V.10.2. Rendered 3-D image of the inverter design (a) and the actual prototype fabricated (b) 461

Figure V.10.3. Simulation model of the two-layer coupler design (a) and the fabricated prototype 462

Figure V.10.4. Simulation model of the front-end rectifier and buck converter 463

Figure V.10.5. Simulation model of the two-layer three-phase couplers with three-phase inverter/rectifier 463

Figure V.10.6. Computational model images of the ground and vehicle couplers 464

Figure V.10.7. Computational model images of the ground and vehicle couplers 464

Figure V.10.8. Computational model images of the ground and vehicle couplers 464

Figure V.10.9. Experimental test setup 465

Figure V.10.10. Results for an example test case with 50kW output 465

Figure VI.1.1. Percentage of total paved miles and annual driven road-miles for primary, secondary, and local roadways in USA 468

Figure VI.1.2. Dynamic wireless EV charging in an electrified roadway 469

Figure VI.1.3. Dynamic wireless EV charging in an electrified roadway 469

Figure VI.1.4. Reference wireless power transfer pads showing coil layout and peak ferrite flux density: (Left) Square pad, (Right) DD pad 470

Figure VI.1.5. Reference pad transmitter showing coil layout, peak ferrite flux density, and travel direction: (Left) Square pad system, (Right) DD pad system 470

Figure VI.1.6. Dynamic wireless EV charging in an electrified roadway 470

Figure VI.1.7. Dynamic power transfer level and efficieny of the SOA DWPT systems 471

Figure VI.1.8. Dynamic power transfer level and surface power density of the vehicle coil of the SOA DWPT systems 471

Figure VI.1.9. Reference pad profiles assuming a vehicle velocity of 75mph 472

Figure VI.1.10. Grid current, active and reactive power and current spectrum for vehicle traveling at 20mph with DWPT 472

Figure VI.1.11. Grid current, active and reactive power and current spectrum for vehicle traveling at 70mph with DWPT 472

Figure VI.1.12. The phase of the derived and simulated control-signal-to-coil current transfer function as a function of frequency 472

Figure VI.1.13. The magnitiude of the derived and simulated control-signal-to-coil current transfer function as a function of frequency 472

Figure VI.2.1. Light duty 200kW WPT with Tooth-Edge Ferrite Design 475

Figure VI.2.2. Magnetic field magnitude for 200kW light duty WPT with and without Tooth-Edge ferrite design 476

Figure VI.2.3. Representative electrical waveform during in-motion wireless power transfer 477

Figure VII.1.1. Project tasks flow chart 480

Figure VII.1.2. 350kW Extreme Fast Charger at Idaho National Lab 483

Figure VII.1.3. 350kW Extreme Fast Charger stop charge response characteristics 484

Figure VII.2.1. Charging power profile for a fast charging site with high fidelity models for six 350kW ABB Terra HP fast chargers over a 24-hour period 488

Figure VII.2.2. Charging power profile for a fast charging site with high fidelity models for six 350kW ABB Terra HP fast chargers over a 2-hour period 488

Figure VII.2.3. ABB Terra HP extreme fast charger installed in the EVIL lab located at INL 489

Figure VII.4.1. Electric vehicle communication systems to different components and entities 493

Figure VII.4.2. Project tasking 494

Figure VII.4.3. Threat Model 495

Figure VII.4.4. Attack graph 496

Figure VII.4.5. Different distribution voltage profiles for coordinated charging/discharging of EVSEs totaling 2.25MW 496

Figure VII.4.6. WECC light spring: system values through time 497