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Contents

Highlights 2

Letter 5

Background 7

Women Remain Underrepresented in Management Positions and Continue to Earn Less on Average Than Male Managers 8

Women Remain Underrepresented in Management Positions and Their Representation Varied by Industry 8

Compared to Male Managers, Female Managers Were More Likely to Be Younger and Have at Least a Bachelor's Degree, among Other Differences 11

Full-Time Female Managers Continued to Earn Less on Average Than Male Managers, and the Gap Was Greater for Certain Groups 13

Prior GAO Reports Found Considerable Differences between Women and Men in Certain Sectors, in Both Management Positions and Pay 15

Far Fewer Women Than Men Were in Management Positions in the Financial Services and the Technology Sectors 15

The Gender Pay Gap in the Federal Workforce Remains but Has Narrowed 17

Differences in Women's and Men's Pay Affect Total Earnings and May Affect Retirement Savings 19

Agency Comments 20

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 21

Appendix II: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 25

Related GAO Products 26

Figures

Figure 1. Women's Estimated Representation in Management and Non-management Positions by Industry, 2019 10

Figure 2. Estimated Percentage of Women and Men in Management, by Key Characteristics, 2019 12

Figure 3. Estimated Average Pay for Male and Female Full-time Managers by Race and Ethnicity, 2019 14

Figure 4. Race and Ethnicity and Gender Representation of Executive/Senior-Level Management in the Financial Services Industry, 2018 16

Figure 5. Percentage of Workers by Gender in Different Job Categories in Companies within and outside the Technology Sector, 2015 17

Figure 6. Pay Gap between Women and Men in the Federal Workforce, 1999 through 2017 18

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