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22대 대한민국 국회 국회정보길라잡이 국회의원검색
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소장정보 검색

국회도서관 홈으로 정보검색 소장정보 검색
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Title page 1

Contents 1

Abstract 3

1. Introduction 4

2. Data and Descriptive Statistics 8

2.1. Data Sources and Estimation Sample 8

2.2. Descriptive Statistics 12

3. Empirical Strategy 14

4. Results 19

4.1. The child penalty in parental labour market outcomes 19

4.2. Heterogeneity by the gender of the firstborn child 21

4.3. Other Outcomes: Home production, attitudes and mental health 25

4.4. Heterogeneity in the daughter penalty by pre-birth characteristics 35

5. Conclusion 39

References 40

Appendices for: The Daughter Penalty 44

A. Data Appendix 44

B. Alternative Specifications 55

C. Additional Results 65

D. Heterogeneity 70

Tables 12

Table 1. Summary Statistics at Baseline (Wave 1) 12

Table 2. Balance Tests by Gender of the First Child at Baseline 14

Figures 20

Figure 1. The child penalty - Labour market outcomes 20

Figure 2. The child penalty in labour market outcomes by gender of the firstborn child 21

Figure 3. Do parents respond differentially to girls? Mothers versus Fathers Daughter Penalties 23

Figure 4. The child penalty in housework by gender of the firstborn child 26

Figure 5. The child penalty in childcare responsibilities by gender of the firstborn child 28

Figure 6. The child penalty in future fertility by gender of the firstborn child 29

Figure 7. The child penalty in parental views on progressive gender and socio-political attitudes by gender of the firstborn child 30

Figure 8. The relationship stability difference by whether the firstborn child is a daughter 32

Figure 9. The relationship stability difference by whether the firstborn child is a daughter 33

Figure 10. The child penalty in mental health by gender of the firstborn child 34

Figure 11. Parents with and without degrees: child penalties in earnings 36

Figure 12. Daughter Penalty by Gender Norms 38

Appendix Tables 44

Table A1. Survey Waves and Birth Cohorts 44

Table A2. Descriptive Statistics 45

Table A3. Summary Statistics by sample 48

Appendix Figures 49

Figure A1. Correlations between key measures 49

Figure B1. The child penalty in monthly earnings by gender of the firstborn child 55

Figure B2. The child penalty in monthly earnings by gender of the firstborn child 56

Figure B3. The child penalty in hours conditional on employment by gender of the firstborn child 57

Figure B4. The child penalty in monthly earnings by gender of the firstborn child 58

Figure B5. The child penalty in employment by gender of the firstborn child 59

Figure B6. The child penalty in hours conditional on employment by gender of the firstborn child 60

Figure B7. Child penalty in labour market outcomes: all children 61

Figure B8. Monthly earnings: heterogeneity by gender 62

Figure B9. Employment: heterogeneity by gender 63

Figure B10. Total working hours: heterogeneity by gender 64

Figure C1. Differential responses by child gender: Father (grey) and Mother (green): Additional labour market outcomes 65

Figure C2. Differential responses by child gender: Father (grey) and Mother (green): Health and stress-related outcomes 67

Figure C3. Hours spent on housework in an average week 68

Figure C4. Relationship happiness index 69

Figure D1. Child Penalties by Education (Employment) 70

Figure D2. Child penalties by Education (Working hours conditional on employment) 71

Figure D3. Fraction of chores trajectories by Education 72

Figure D4. Childcare responsibilities trajectories by Education 73

Figure D5. Future fertility trajectories by Education 74

Figure D6. Mental health trajectories by Education 75

Figure D7. Employment trajectories by gender equality sentiments 76

Figure D8. Working hours (conditional on employment) trajectories by gender equality sentiments 77

Figure D9. Fraction of chores trajectories by gender equality sentiments 78

Figure D10. Childcare responsibilities by gender equality sentiments 79

Figure D11. Future fertility trajectories by gender equality sentiments 80

Figure D12. Mental health trajectories by gender equality sentiments 81

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