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Title page 1

Contents 1

Abstract 3

1. Introduction 4

2. The Nordic model in a nutshell 7

2.1. A snapshot of the Nordic countries and economies 7

2.2. Key pillars of the Nordic model 9

3. Statistical decomposition of the sources of income equality in the Nordic countries 20

3.1. Income Inequality: Predistribution vs. Redistribution 20

3.2. Labor market inequality 22

4. What explains the economic equality in the Nordic countries? 28

4.1. Equalization of skills through public spending on healthcare, child care, and education 29

4.2. Public Provision of Services that ComplementWorking 39

4.3. Wage Setting and Collective Bargaining 41

5. Nordic exceptionalism? 45

5.1. The free-rider hypothesis 45

5.2. Complementarity between effiency and equality hypothesis 46

5.3. Lack of evidence 48

6. Conclusion 48

References 51

Tables 9

Table 1. Demographics and Economics 9

Table 2. A brief summary of key features of Scandinavian welfare policies 12

Table 3. Inequality in income before and after redistribution 22

Table 4. Labor force participation and work hours 24

Table 5. Wage inequality 25

Table 6. Contribution of hours and hourly wages to earnings inequality 26

Table 7. Within- and between-gender variations of wages, difference from the U.S. 27

Table 8. PIAAC numeracy skills 30

Table 9. Wage regression and skill premium 31

Table 10. Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition of variance of log wages 33

Table 11. Inequality in education 34

Table 12. Returns to schooling 35

Table 13. Decomposition of differences in variance of log wages 36

Table 14. Test scores before entering the labor market 36

Figures 10

Figure 1. Timeline of Introduction of Social Policies in Nordic Countries (1950-2000) 10

Figure 2. Participation taxes and subsidies 15

Figure 3. Trends in Union Density and Bargaining Coverage 18

Figure 4. Overview of Wage Setting Systems 19

Figure 5. Labor Productivity, Wage Floors, and Wage Drift 43