영문목차
Table of Cases=xv
Table of Treaties, Conventions, Protocols, and Agreements=xvii
Table of Statutes=xxv
Abbreviations=xxix
Introduction=1
1. Nature and Sources of Pollutants=6
1.1. Some Preliminary Considerations=6
1.2. The Different Forms of Transboundary Air Pollution=9
(ⅰ) Transfrontier Pollution=9
(ⅱ) Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution=10
(ⅲ) Sources of Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution=12
(ⅳ) Characteristics of Pollutants=12
1.3. The Effects of Transboundary Air Pollutants=15
(ⅰ) Acidification of Lakes and Streams=15
(ⅱ) Effects of Acidification on Forests=16
1.4. Radioactive Contamination=17
(ⅰ) Contamination from Atmospheric Nuclear Tests=17
(ⅱ) Civil Uses of Nuclear Energy and Radioactive Pollution=18
(ⅲ) Accidental Radioactive Contamination as the Focus of Regulation=19
1.5. Effects of Radiation=21
2. Treaty Regimes Regulating Transboundary Air Pollution=24
2.1. Introduction=24
2.2. 1979 ECE Convention=24
(ⅰ) Substantive Provisions=26
(ⅱ) The Principle of Effectiveness=31
(ⅲ) State Practice under the Convention=33
2.3. Sulphur Protocol=36
2.4. The 1994 Sulphur Protocol=38
2.5. The NOSubscriptx Protocol=40
2.6. Protocol on Volatile Organic Compounds=42
2.7. The Convention and its Protocols:An Evaluation=44
2.8. Treaty Arrangements Specific to North America=44
(ⅰ) An Overview=44
(ⅱ) 1991 Air Quality Agreement=45
(ⅲ) Mexico-United States Border Agreements=47
2.9. The Nordic Convention on the Protection of the Environment=49
2.10. EC and Transboundary Air Pollution=50
(ⅰ) The Relevance of Community Law to International Regulation=50
2.11. Air Pollution Directives=51
(ⅰ) The 1984 Directive on Industrial Plants=51
(ⅱ) Large Combustion Plants=52
(ⅲ) Emissions from Mobile Sources=53
(ⅳ) Air Quality Standards=54
2.12. Treaties Relating to Radioactive Contamination=55
(ⅰ) Conventions on Notification and Assistance and Nuclear Safety=56
(ⅱ) The 1994 Nuclear Safety Convention=57
3. General International Law and Transboundary Air Pollution:Norms, Concepts, and Principles=60
3.1. Introduction=60
(ⅰ) The Problem of Sources=62
3.2. The Basic Principles Reconsidered=65
(ⅰ) The Concept of Territorial Sovereignty=65
(ⅱ) Jurisprudence=66
(ⅲ) State Practice=69
(ⅳ) The Position Taken in International Instruments=75
(ⅴ) Some Conclusions=76
3.3. Standard of Performance=77
(ⅰ) introduction=77
(ⅱ) Due Diligence=79
3.4. Compliance With Due Diligence:What Measures?=81
(ⅰ) Due Diligence and the Emerging Principles in the Field of Environmental Protection=83
(ⅱ) Some Conclusions=87
(ⅲ) Thresholds of Tolerance=88
3.5. Norms De Lege Ferenda:A Progressive Regime=90
(ⅰ) The Precautionary Principle=92
(ⅱ) The Right to a Healthy and Ecologically Balanced Environment=93
(ⅲ) Intergenerational Equities=96
(ⅳ) The Principle of Non-Discrimination=96
(ⅴ) Procedural Obligations=97
4. Norms of General International Law Applicable to Radioactive Contamination=98
4.1. Introduction=98
4.2. Atmospheric Nuclear Tests:The Argument for Illegality/Per Se=99
(ⅰ) The 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and Other Treaty Regimes=99
(ⅱ) Customary Law and the Conduct of Atmospheric Nuclear Tests=101
(ⅲ) American and British Tests in the South Pacific=101
(ⅳ) General Assembly Resolutions=104
4.3. State Practice Under the 1963 Treaty=106
(ⅰ) Australia and New Zealand Arguments in the Nuclear Tests Cases=108
(ⅱ) Conclusions=110
4.4. State Responsibility and Atmospheric Nuclear Tests=110
(ⅰ) Compensations and the Hydrogen Bomb Tests=111
(ⅱ) Nuclear Tests Cases and Responsibility for Radioactive Damage=111
(ⅲ) The Canadian Claim for Damage Caused by the Soviet Cosmos 954=113
4.5. Civil Uses of Nuclear Energy=114
(ⅰ) Control as the Basis of Responsibility=114
(ⅱ) The Duty to Regulate Sources of Harm=115
4.6. The Nature of the Duty=116
(ⅰ) Standard of Care in the Practice of States:British and American Hydrogen Bomb Tests=117
(ⅱ) National Legislation as Evidence as the Applicable Standard of Care=119
(ⅲ) Standard of Care in Treaty Regimes on Nuclear Liability=120
4.7. The Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Plant=121
(ⅰ) Legal Significance of the Absence of Protest=123
(ⅱ) Response of Governments Affected by Chernobyl=124
(ⅲ) The Soviet Response:An Evaluation=128
(ⅳ) Some Conclusions=130
5. Procedural Obligations of States=131
5.1. Introduction=131
5.2. Environmental Impact Assessments=132
5.3. Notification=136
(ⅰ) Notification in Nuclear Treaties=138
(ⅱ) Notification and Unavoidable Harm:The Case for Prohibition=141
(ⅲ) Does a Failure to Respond to Notification Attract any Legal Consequences?=143
(ⅳ) Notification in Emergency Situations=145
(ⅴ) Conclusions on Notification=146
5.4. Duties Pertaining to the Exchange of Information=147
5.5. The Duty to Enter into Consultations=149
(ⅰ) The Nature of the Duty=149
(ⅱ) Consultation and Air Pollution Treaties=151
(ⅲ) Consultation and Nuclear Treaties=153
5.6. Procedural Duties Under Customary International Law=154
(ⅰ) Treaty Practice as Evidence of Customary Norms=155
(ⅱ) The International Law Commission=157
(ⅲ) The Watercourses Regime=158
(ⅳ) The International Law Commission and Liability for Injurious Consequences of Acts not Prohibited by International Law=159
(ⅴ) The Resolutions of the Institute of International Law and the International Law Association=160
(ⅵ) State Practice in the Context of Particular Disputes=162
(ⅶ) The Case for a Customary Law Duty to Warn in Emergency Situations=167
5.7. Some Conclusions on Customary Law=169
6. Determination of Responsibility=171
6.1. Introduction=171
6.2. The Nature and Forms of Breach=173
(ⅰ) Instantaneous and Continuing Breaches=173
(ⅱ) Damage to Persons or Property=175
(ⅲ) Detrimental Alteration of Environment Quality=176
6.3. The Causal Element in Claims for Loss or Damage=179
(ⅰ) The Proximate Causality Test=179
(ⅱ) Proof of Causation in the Trail Smelter Case=182
(ⅲ) Possible Difficulties in the Application of Traditional Concepts:Some General Observations=184
(ⅳ) Causation and Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution=185
(ⅴ) Material Contribution to Risk=188
6.4. Heads of Damage of Specific Relevance to Air Pollution=190
(ⅰ) Probable and Future Damage=190
(ⅱ) Precautionary Measures and Clean-up Costs=191
6.5. Responsibility and Multiple State Actors=195
(ⅰ) Municipal Practice=198
(ⅱ) International Jurisprudence=199
(ⅲ) Relative Causal Contribution=201
7. Judicial Remedies for Transboundary Air Pollution=203
7.1. Introduction=203
7.2. International Judicial Remedies=204
(ⅰ) Declaratory Judgments=204
(ⅱ) Interim Measures of Protection=207
(ⅲ) Damages=208
7.3. Locus Standi and Air Pollution Disputes=209
(ⅰ) Multilateral Treaties=210
(ⅱ) Obligation Erga Omnes and Air Pollution=212
7.4. Exhaustion of Local Remedies=217
(ⅰ) The Rule and its Rationale=217
(ⅱ) Conclusions=220
7.5. Extinctive Prescription=221
7.6. Municipal Remedies=223
(ⅰ) Equal Access to Municipal Remedies=223
(ⅱ) Nuclear Civil Liability Conventions=226
(ⅲ) Conclusions=229
8. Non-Judicial Methods of Supervision and Enforcement=230
8.1. Introduction=230
8.2. The System of Periodic Reporting=231
(ⅰ) The 1979 ECE Convention=231
(ⅱ) Reporting Duties Under the Protocols=233
(ⅲ) The 1991 Air Quality Agreement=237
(ⅳ) Reporting Systems and Radioactive Contamination=239
8.3. Complaints Procedures=240
8.4. On-Site Inspection=242
8.5. Fact-Finding or Inquiry=245
8.6. Some Conclusions=247
8.7. Non-forcible Countermeasures=248
(ⅰ) Countermeasures and the Problem of Indivisible or Integral Obligations=249
(ⅱ) Countermeasures and Erga Omnes Obligations=251
(ⅲ) Restrictions on Trade as a Sanction for Non-Compliance=252
8.8. Self-Help=254
9. Conclusions=257
9.1. Scope and Future Development=261
Bibliography=269
Index=279