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Foreword xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Copyright Permission Acknowledgments xxi
Setting the Epistemological Context 3
Introduction 3
General Introduction 4
The Search for True Beliefs 4
The Relationship between Perceptions and the External World 5
Foundationalism 5
Reliabilism 7
The Coherence Theory of Justification 10
Thematic Statements 12
The Epistemology of Presocratic Greek Rationalism 33
Introduction: The Rationalist Paradigm and the Search for Founding Principles 33
Greek Rationalism 34
The Presocratic Philosophers: Their Contributions to the Development of Rationalist Philosophy and Science 36
Introduction 36
Thales: The First Material Monist 38
Anaximander on Nature 40
The Material Monism of Anaximenes 43
The Natural Philosophy of Heraclitus 45
Heraclitus' Monistic Account of the Cosmos 45
Heraclitus' Epistemology 47
Heraclitus' Moral Thought 50
Conclusion 51
Xenophanes: Father of Epistemology and/or of Monotheism? 51
Xenophanes' Theology 52
Xenophanes' Epistemology 53
Conclusion 54
The Eleatic Critique of Monism: Parmenides 54
The Epistemology of Parmenides 55
The Way of Truth 55
Parmenides and Reason: Further Epistemological Implications 60
The Way of Opinion 61
Conclusion 64
Plato's Epistemology and His Theory of Ethics, Government, and Law 67
Part 1: Plato's EpistemologyWhat Is Knowledge? 68(47)
Knowledge as Perception 68
The Infallibility of Perception Relative to the Perceiver 73
Conclusion 85
Knowledge as True Belief 86
The Dichotomy of Knowing and Not Knowing 86
The Dichotomy of Being and Not Being 87
Things Which Are 89
The Mind as a Block of Wax 90
The Mind as an Aviary 94
Conclusion: Relationship between Knowledge, False Judgment, and True Belief 99
Knowledge as True Belief Accompanied by an Account 100
Introduction: The Original Theory Restated as a ``Dream'' 100
Analysis of the Central Claim of the Dream Theory 101
The Possible Meanings of ``Account'' 106
Summary and Conclusion: Is Knowledge Possible? 112
Knowledge as Perception 112
Knowledge as True Belief 113
Knowledge as True Belief with an Account 113
How Is Knowledge Attained? 115
Knowledge and Recollection 115
Knowledge through Recollection 115
The Disembodied Soul, Recollection, and Immortality 119
Conclusion 123
Objects of Knowledge: Plato's Theory of Forms 123
The Theory of Forms 124
The Image of the Sun 126
The Divided Line 130
The Allegory of the Cave 134
Conclusion 139
Criticisms of the Theory of Forms: The Parmenides 139
Scope of the Forms 139
Criticism of the Doctrine of Participation 141
The Third Man Argument 143
The Problem of the Unknowability of the Forms 146
Conclusion 149
Plato's Postscript 151
Part 2: Plato's Ethics
Good Character: A Condition of the Soul 152
Harmony in the Soul 152
Virtue and Moral Education 157
The Link between Good Government and Virtue 158
Justice 159
Glaucon Challenges the Priority of Justice 159
Plato Embraces the Priority of Justice 163
Psychological Justice and Political Justice 166
The Analogy between City and Soul 166
Justice in the City 166
Epistemological Foundations of Law 170
The Epistemology of Law in the Just City 170
Politike Episteme: Knowledge and Just Government 174
Epistemology and Law in the ``Second Best'' Condition 178
Conclusion and Assessment 182
Aristotle's Epistemology and His Theory of Ethics, Government, and Law 185
Introduction 185
Aristotle's Epistemology 186
Introduction to Aristotelian Logic 186
Aristotle's Concept of Nature, Reality, and Being 189
Form, Universal, and Substance 191
Form, Matter, and Potentiality 193
Aristotle's Doctrine of the Causes 195
The Eternity of Motion and the Unmoved Mover 197
Perception and Knowledge: Some Comparisons with Plato 198
The Five Intellectual Virtues: A Transitional Note to Aristotle's Ethics 203
Aristotle's Ethics 206
Introduction 206
The Goal of Ethical Conduct 207
The Good 207
Happiness 208
Happiness and Virtue 210
Good Character and the Virtuous Mean 214
Practical Wisdom and Moral Responsibility 219
The Happy Life 220
Aristotle's Political Theory 222
Introduction: The Platonic Context and Beyond 222
The State and Its Ethical Foundation: The Basic Epistemological Claim 223
Law and Its Ethical Foundation 227
Natural Law and Positive Law 229
Law and Justice 230
The Best Government and the Rule of Law 235
Aristotle's Classification of States and Their Constitutions 238
Political Justice and Law 242
Summary and Conclusion 246
Aristotle's Metaphysics 246
Aristotle's Ethical Theory 248
Aristotle's Political Theory 249
Natural Law Theory 251
Introduction 251
Basic Concepts and Definitions 252
Prephilosophical Natural Law Theory? 253
Greek Rationalism and Ethical Theory: Early Foundations of Natural Law Theory 255
The Beginnings of the Postsocratic Era: Socrates at the Crossroads of the Great Epistemological Shift 255
Introduction 255
A Note on Sources 255
Socrates' Ethical Posture 256
Virtue and Knowledge 257
The Epistemological Implications of Socrates' Ethical Teleology 258
Socrates' Legal Naturalism 263
The Socratic Legacy: Influence on Plato and Aristotle 269
The Late Rationalist Period 271
Accommodation or Universalization? The Stoic Concept of a Universal Law of Nature 272
Introduction to Stoicism 273
Stoic Philosophy Generally 274
Stoic Cosmology and Its Ethical Naturalism 274
Stoic Legal Naturalism 276
Cicero's Jurisprudence and Contributions to Stoic Natural Law Theory 277
Stoic Influence on the Development of International Law 279
Conclusion and Assessment 280
The Natural Law Theory of St. Thomas Aquinas 281
Introduction 281
Basic Tenets of Aquinas's Epistemology 282
The Place of Law Within Aquinas's Overall Cosmology 285
Aquinas's Concept and Classification of Law 286
Natural Law 288
Natural Law and Human Law 290
Conclusion 292
Conclusion 293
The Decline of Classical Naturalism: The Modernist Challenge 295
Introduction 295
The Age of Reason and New Horizons in Knowledge 296
The Materialist Metaphysics and Epistemology of Thomas Hobbes 298
Hobbes's Concept of Political Authority 303
Conclusion 305
The Epistemology of Descartes and Its Implications for Natural Law 307
Descartes and Skepticism 313
A Cartesian Cartwheel? 314
Descartes's Existentialism 319
Descartes's Moral Doctrine 321
Conclusion 323
The Epistemology of John Locke 324
Locke on the Nature of Human Understanding 325
Locke's Treatment of Ideas 326
Simple Ideas 326
Complex Ideas 327
The Structure and Extent of Human Knowledge 328
The Unique Nature of Locke's Empiricism 331
Parallels with Descartes 332
Conclusion 335
Locke's Ethical Naturalism 336
Locke's Political Theory 340
The State of Nature 341
The Social Contract 343
Comparison of Locke's and Hobbes's Theory of Natural Law and Social Contract 351
Concluding Reflections on Locke's Epistemology: Is an Ethical Foundation for Law Really Knowable? 352
The Epistemology of David Hume 354
Introduction 354
Hume on the Operation of Human Understanding and Its Limits 354
The Nature of Human Reason 359
The Causal Relation as a Philosophical Relation and a Natural Relation 363
Hume's Notion of Causality 364
Perception Beyond the Senses: Uniformity and Belief 371
The Ontological Status of the Objects of Perception 375
Hume's Critique of Induction 377
Induction and the Is/Ought Dichotomy 382
Hume's Concept of Morality 383
Hume's Concept of Justice 391
Hume and Natural Law? 394
Conclusion 396
The Duality of Knowledge: A Transitional Note to the Epistemology of Immanuel Kant 398
The Epistemology of Immanuel Kant 400
Introduction 400
Kant's Epistemology 401
The Propositional Character of Kant's Epistemology 405
Kant's Taxonomy of Judgment 407
The Justification of A Priori Synthetic Judgments 410
Kant's Moral Philosophy in Context 414
Introduction 414
Kant's Political Theory 415
Conclusion 417
Kant's Moral Theory 418
Introduction 418
Duty, Reason, and Moral Law 419
The Categorical Imperative 423
Other Formulations of the Categorical Imperative 426
How Is the Categorical Imperative Possible? 432
Conclusion 437
The Rise of Legal Positivism 441
Introduction 441
Renaissance Thought and Legal Positivism 442
Dante Alighieri on Political Power 442
Marsiglio of Padua on Sovereignty 443
Machiavelli's Concept of Sovereignty 444
Conclusion 446
The Emergence of Analytical Positivism 447
Introduction: The Humean Challenge 447
The Major Tenets of Analytical Positivism 451
Jeremy Bentham: Critic and Reformer 452
Bentham's Critique of Natural Law Theory 452
Bentham's Critique of Social Contract Theory 458
The Utilitarianism of Bentham 462
Bentham's Utilitarianism and Legal Positivism 469
Bentham's Ontology 472
Bentham's Concept of Political Authority 477
Bentham and Deontic Logic 479
Assessment of Bentham's Contribution to Legal Theory 483
The Positivism of Austin 485
Austin's Concept of Sovereignty 489
Conclusion 493
Epistemological Themes of Twentieth--Century Natural Law Theory 497
A New Crisis of Confidence 497
The Resurgence of Legal Naturalism 498
The Natural Law Theory of Lon Fuller 499
Fuller on the Relationship between Law and Morality 499
Fuller's Dualist Morality and Naturalism 502
Law as a Purposive Enterprise 503
Fuller's Natural Law Theory 508
Fuller and the Natural Law Tradition: A Critical Appraisal 510
Avoidance of Epistemological Commitments 510
Is Fuller a Transcendentalist? 513
Bridging the Gap Between Form and Content 514
Conclusion 516
The Natural Law Theory of John Finnis 516
Introduction 516
Finnis: A Teleologist? 517
Setting the Record Straight 521
Finnis's Naturalist Epistemology 522
Finnis's Ethical Naturalism 524
Structural Notions 524
Substantive Implications 526
Finnis's Legal Naturalism 532
Conclusion 534
The Legal Naturalism of Ronald Dworkin 535
Introduction 535
Dworkin's Rights-Based Theory of Adjudication 536
Dworkin's Legal Naturalism and Theory of Rights 536
Dworkin's Theory of Adjudication 541
Law as an Interpretive Concept 547
Conclusion 553
Dworkin's Place in the Naturalist Tradition 556
Epistemological Themes of Twentieth--Century Legal Positivism 561
Introduction 561
Hans Kelsen's Pure Theory of Law 562
Kantian and Neo-Kantian Influences on Kelsen's Methodology 562
Kantian Concepts and Dichotomies in Kelsen's Concept of a Legal Norm 563
Kelsen's Adaptation of the Transcendental Method of Hermann Cohen 568
Introduction 568
Cohen's Theory of Knowledge 569
Kelsen's Adaptation of Cohen's Epistemology 571
The Uniqueness of Kelsen's Positivism 574
Critical Perspectives on Kelsen's Kantianism 580
Critique of the Sein/Sollen Dichotomy 581
Critique of Kelsen's Understanding of Kant's Practical Philosophy 584
Critique of Imputation as a Kantian Category 586
Critique of Kelsen's Moral Relativism and Factual Absolutism 588
Critique of Kelsen's Concept of Validity and the ``Transcendental Question'' 589
Kelsen's Methodological Purity, Transcendentalism, and Verificationism 598
Kelsen's Moral Relativism 598
Methodological Purity and Verificationism 600
The Basic Norm, Normativity, and Verificationism 601
Conclusion 604
H.L.A. Hart's Concept of Law and Morality 606
Hart's Approach to Morality in General 606
Hart's View of the Relationship between Law and Morality 607
Natural Law Theory and Teleology: Hart's Plea for Conceptual Clarity 611
Hart on the Minimum Content of Natural Law 615
Hart's Minimum Content and the Epistemologies of Hobbes and Hume 620
Hobbesian and Humean Origins 620
Hart's Contingent Adaptation of Hume 625
The Separability Thesis and Hart's Minimum Content of Natural Law 627
On Deriving Is from Ought: Hart and Hume Revisited 629
The Basic Controversy Over Is and Ought 629
Relevance of Hume's Concept of Justice and the Revised Interpretation 630
The Textual Component of the Revised Interpretation 633
Hart in Humean Context 633
Conclusion and Assessment 635
Contemporary Highlights of the Positivist/Naturalist Debate 639
Introduction 639
Hart on the Separation of Law and Morality 640
The Hart-Fuller Debate 645
Round One: Fuller's Coherence Theory and Meaning in Law 645
Order, Good Order, and the Positivist ``Dilemma'' 646
Round Two: The Debate over the Internal Morality Law 651
Round Three: Hart's Critique of Fuller's The Morality of Law 652
Round Four: The Debate over Hart's Rule of Recognition 655
The Ghost of Wittgenstein and the Rule of Recognition 662
Fuller Has the Last Word: The Interactional Theory of Law 664
Conclusion 669
The Hart-Dworkin Debate 670
Introduction 670
The Dispute over Judicial Discretion 671
Hart's Position 671
Dworkin's Critique 673
Judicial Discretion and Collateral Issues 674
Description versus Evaluation 674
No Right Answer? 675
The Semantic Sting 678
The Dispute over the Rule of Recognition 682
The ``Plain Fact'' Ascription 682
A Rule of ``Pedigree?'' 685
Pedigree and the Separability Thesis 686
The Rule of Recognition and Custom 691
Conclusion 694
Contemporary Highlights of the Debate over Naturalism: Controversy from Within and Without 697
Introduction 697
The Fuller-Dworkin Debate 698
The Main Points in Controversy 698
Fuller's Reply 701
Dworkin Has the Last Word 706
Conclusion 709
The Dworkin-Fish Debate 710
Introduction to Dworkin's Interpretive Approach 710
Interpretation and Law 711
Fish's Critique of Dworkin 717
Dworkin's Reply 725
Introduction 725
The Theoretical Dispute 726
Specific Issues of Controversy 727
Fish Counters: ``Wrong Again!'' 734
Fish on Law's Empire: ``Still Wrong!'' 743
Introduction 743
Fish's Critique 743
Conclusion 749
The Postmodern Challenge to Foundationalism 753
Introduction 753
Part 1: Origins of Antifoundationalism
An Introductory Note to Critical Nineteenth-Century Philosophy 754
The Materialist Epistemology of Karl Marx 755
Historical Materialism and the Reversal of the Hegelian Dialectic 755
Subjectivity and Alienation 759
The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche 763
Did Socrates Kill Greek Drama? 763
Perspectivism and Postmodernism 764
Nietzsche's Concept of Alienation 766
Nietzsche and Nihilism 767
Nietzsche's Critique of Dogmatism in Philosophy and Christian Morality 768
Conclusion 771
An Introductory Note to Critical Twentieth-Century Continental Philosophy 772
The Critical Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre 772
Sartre's Ontology and His Doctrine of Being 773
Conscious Being and Freedom: The Antifoundationalism of Sartre 776
Existentialism, Subjectivity, and the Possibility of a New Ethics 778
Sartre and Marxism 785
Existentialism and Marxism 785
Subjectivity and Alienation 787
Alienation and Revolution 788
Conclusion 790
Part 2: Contemporary European Postmodernism
The Philosophy of Michel Foucault 791
Foucault's Nietzschean Genealogy 792
Foucault on the State, Power, and Law 795
Natural Law/Social Contract Theory: Source of Liberation or Domination? 802
Conclusion 806
Introduction to European Structuralism and Poststructuralism 808
Derrida's Method of Deconstruction 809
Derrida on Law and Justice 816
Conclusion and Assessment 823
The Poststructuralist Thought of Lyotard 827
The Lyotardean Differend 835
A Postmodern Take on the Is/Ought Dichotomy: Lyotard on Description versus Prescription 837
Conclusion 842
Postmodernism in the United States 845
Part 1: Death of the Subject
Introduction 845
Subjectivity in the General Context of Postmodern Thought 845
Critiques of Subjectivity 847
Postmodern Thought and Law 854
Part 2: Poststructuralism and Deconstruction in the United States
Introduction 856
The Intellectual Lineage of CLS 857
Early Influences: Emergence of Legal Realism 857
Modern Influences: Structuralism and the Birth of CLS 861
CLS and Poststructuralism 868
Deconstructing Legal Education 869
Alienation and a Deconstructive Phenomenology of Rights 876
Kennedy's Deconstructive Critique of Adjudication 881
Left Modernism/Postmodernism and the Charge of Nihilism 884
The Indeterminacy Critique of CLS: A Wittgensteinian Alternative? 885
Conclusion 889
Part 3: Pragmatism, Relativism, or Nihilism?
Rorty: Pragmatic Ethnocentricism 892
Critical Reaction and Rorty's Defense 896
Fish: Relativism or Nihilism? Or Both? 900
Law and Economics: The Pragmatism of Posner 905
Fish's Critique of Posnerian Pragmatism 909
Pragmatism and Tamanaha's ``Realistic Socio--Legal Theory'' 913
Scholarly Reaction and Debate 914
Phenomenology: A Better Alternative to Pragmatism? 916
Tamanaha Replies 919
Conclusion 925
Postmodernism in General: Final Remarks 927
Author Index 929
Subject Index 935