Title Page
Contents
Acknowledgements. 6
The Authors 7
Abbreviations and acronyms. 8
Summary 9
1. Introduction 15
1.1. Background 15
1.2. Methodology 16
1.2.1. Aims and objectives 16
1.2.2. Case study area selection 16
1.2.3. Constructing the customer samples 17
1.2.4. Qualitative fieldwork activities 18
2. Summary of literature review 21
2.1. Summary 21
2.2. Introduction 22
2.3. Policy and social context 23
2.4. The concept of social mobility 23
2.5. Trends in social mobility 27
2.6. Factors influencing social mobility 28
3. Area-based factors 31
3.1. Summary 31
3.2. History and context 32
3.3. Housing 33
3.4. The labour market 33
3.5. Quality of local education provision 34
3.6. Local regeneration and labour market initiatives 37
3.7. Area-based factors and social mobility 38
4. Individual experiences of factors impacting on social mobility 41
4.1. Summary 41
4.2. Conceptual underpinnings 43
4.3. Experiences of social mobility within the sample 43
4.3.1. Experiences of intra-class mobility within the working class 43
4.3.2. Upward inter-class mobility from the working class 47
4.3.3. Downward inter-class mobility into the working class 49
4.4. Differences in the experiences of the two sample groups 50
4.5. Constraints and influences on upward social mobility 51
4.5.1. Access to social capital arising from the family 51
4.5.2. Access to social capital arising from the community 60
4.5.3. Experiences of the compulsory education system 62
4.5.4. Educational decision making 65
4.5.5. Aspirations and expectations 68
4.5.6. Experiences of the labour market 74
4.5.7. Attitudes to parenting and children 78
4.5.8. Negative life events and resilience 79
5. Conclusions: understanding the constraints on social mobility 83
5.1. Summary 83
5.2. Social mobility is about movement within as well as between classes 83
5.3. Social mobility is complex 84
5.4. Social mobility is a long-term measure 84
5.5. Social mobility is just one aspect of a 'fair' society 84
5.6. Explaining patterns of social mobility 85
5.6.1. Structural economic and labour market factors 85
5.6.2. Area-based factors 86
5.6.3. Household, family and individual factors 87
5.6.4. Public service factors 88
6. Issues to consider 91
6.1. Issues relevant to central government generally 91
6.2. Recommendations to the Department for Work and Pensions 92
6.3. Relevant issues beyond the remit of the Department for Work and Pensions 94
Appendix A. Customer and ex-customer topic guide 97
Appendix B. Agency and stakeholder topic guide. 113
Appendix C. Education topic guide. 121
Appendix D. Employer topic guide. 131
Appendix E. Screening questionnaire. 137
References 142
Table 1.1. Number of agency respondents by area 18
Table 1.2. Number of stakeholder respondents by area 19
Table 1.3. Interview sample selection criteria 20
Table 1.4. Number of customer respondents by area 20
Table 2.1. Standard class structures 25
Table 3.1. Labour market indicators, by area 36
Table 3.2. Interventions in each area 37
Figure 2.1. Alternative class schema for understanding social mobility in relation to Welfare to Work 27