영문목차
List of Figures=xli
List of Tables=xliii
Introductory Note / John Paul Stevens [ Associate Justice(retired), U.S. Supreme Court]=xlvii
2012 Foreword / Guadalupe Valdés=xlvii
1991 Foreword / Joshua A. Fishman=liii
Preface=lv
Acknowledgments=lxv
Introduction
Chapter 1. Social Justice through Language Access=3
1. Social Justice and Diversity=3
1.1. Lack of Equal Access to Justice=4
1.2. Marginalization of Language Minorities=5
1.3. Impetus for Reform : The Court Interpreters Act of 1978=6
1.4. Continued Pressing Need for Competent Court Interpreters=7
1.5. Reinforcement of Civil Rights Act : Executive Order 13166(2000)=9
1.6. Title VI : Focus on the Courts=11
2. Providing Language Access : The Profession of Court Interpretation=12
2.1. The Goal of Court Interpreting : Legal Equivalence Refined to Meaningful Legal Equivalence=14
2.1.1. The Court Interpreter : Provider of Meaningful Access=16
2.1.2. Adaptation versus Conservation=17
2.1.3. Thoughtful Conservation of Meaning and Register=18
2.2. Prerequisite Skills for Court Interpreting=19
2.2.1. Formal Education : The Pathway to Competence=25
2.3. Competent Court Interpreting Is Pivotal to Social Justice=26
3. Shortage of Court Interpreters=26
4. The Demand for Language Services=27
4.1. Changing Demographics=27
4.1.1. Hispanics : The Largest Minority Group=28
4.1.2. Growth of the Hispanic Diaspora across the U.S.=28
4.1.3. Growth of the Asian Population=29
4.2. Growing Language Diversity in the U.S.=30
4.2.1. Languages Other Than English Spoken at Home=31
4.2.2. Asian Language Use=32
4.2.3. Language Use Patterns Pertinent to Language Services=32
4.3. Increasing Number of Persons with LEP=33
4.4. Interpreter Usage in the Courts=34
4.5. Increasing Need for Language Services=37
Chapter 2. Dilemmas in Due Process=39
1. Substandard Language Accommodation Denies Justice=39
1.1. Poor Quality Interpretation Leads to Detrimental Legal Outcomes=39
1.2. The Hanigan Trials in Arizona(1977-1982)=40
1.3. Testimony of T. Kamiyama to the Grand Jury in the Matter of the Rev. Sun Myoung Moon(U.S. v. Moon, 1983)=43
1.4. California v. Nguyen(1989)=46
2. Continued Injustices as a Result of Poor Interpreting Services=48
2.1. Pagoada v. Kentucky(2001)=49
2.2. Alfonzo v. Florida(2007)=53
2.3. Diaz v. Indiana(2010)=58
2.4. Tennessee v. Barrera(2007)=60
2.5. California v. Morales-Garcia(2010)=61
2.6. New Jersey v. DeSouza(2010)=62
2.7. The Case of Mariella Batista and Other Civil Proceedings=62
3. Obstacles to Ensuring Equal Access=64
3.1. Lack of Awareness by Judges and Attorneys of the Criticality of Language Services in Achieving Justice=65
3.2. The Default Solution for Interpreter Shortage : Reliance on "Otherwise Qualified" Interpreters of Unknown Competence=67
3.3. Shortage of Certified, Qualified Interpreters in State Courts=68
3.4. Lack of Uniform Standards of Interpreter Proficiency in State Courts=68
3.5. Misplaced Focus on Testing over Training to Develop Interpreter Pool=70
3.6. Failure to Provide a Continuum of Language Services for LEP Populations=72
3.7. Failure to Consistently Provide Free Interpreting Services for All Types of Cases(Criminal and Civil) in All Jurisdictions and Specialty Courts=73
3.8. Shortage of Federally Certified Court Interpreters=75
3.9. Lack of Federal Certification for Languages of Limited Diffusion=76
3.10. Failure to Provide Interpreting Services in All Legal and Quasi-Legal Forums, Including Encounters with Administrative Agencies=77
3.11. Failure to Record Foreign Language Testimony=78
3.12. Denying LEP Defendants Trial by a Jury of Their Peers=79
3.13. Use of Child Interpreters=80
4. Signs of Improvement=81
Chapter 3. Interpreting as a Profession=83
1. History of Interpreting=83
2. Categories of Interpreting=84
2.1. Community Interpreting=85
2.1.1. Social Services=87
2.2. Medical Interpreting=87
2.2.1. Mental Health=88
2.3. Educational Interpreting=89
2.4. Business Interpreting=91
2.5. Conference Interpreting=91
2.5.1. Seminar Interpreting=92
2.5.2. Escort Interpreting=92
2.6. Remote Interpreting=92
2.7. Relay Interpreting=93
3. Legal Implications of Interpreting=93
Chapter 4. The Profession of Court Interpretation=95
1. Introduction=95
2. Types of Legal Interpreting=95
2.1. Quasi-Judicial Interpreting=95
2.2. Court Interpreting=96
3. Conference Interpreting versus Court Interpreting=96
4. Growth of Court Interpreting as a Profession=98
5. The Professionalization of Court Interpreting=99
6. Current Status of the Court Interpreting Profession=101
7. Improving the Professional Status of the Interpreter=103
7.1. Clarifying Ethical Principles and Advancing Professional Status=103
7.2. Assertion of Professional Standing=105
Unit 1. Historical Antecedents
Chapter 5. Overview of Language Policy in the U.S.=109
1. Fundamental Sociolinguistic Concepts=110
1.1. Language Policy as a Socially Constructed Phenomenon, Reflecting Societal Concerns, Biases, and Values=111
1.1.1. A Model for Deciphering and Evaluating Language Policy=119
1.1.2. Applying the Model : A Policy Analysis of Arizona Proposition 203(2000), English Language Education for Children in Public Schools("English for the Children")=119
1.2. Language and Identity=123
1.3. Acculturation versus Assimilation=124
1.4. Language Ideology=125
1.5. Language Attitudes=127
1.6. Language Rights=127
2. The History of Attitudes Toward Foreign Languages and Language Policy in the U.S.=129
2.1. Prevailing Multilingualism in the Colonial Period(1492 to 1776)=129
2.2. Mounting Nationalism and Growing Inequality for Language Minorities through the Implementation of Restrictive Language Policies from the Establishment of the U.S. through the 1880s(1764 to 1880s)=130
2.3. Increasing English-Only Initiatives during the Great Wave of Migration to the U.S.(1880s to 1950s)=133
2.3.1. Educational Language Policies=134
2.4. Emerging Social Consciousness and Activism Leading to the Equal Access Legislation Enacted during the Civil Rights Movement(1960s to 1970s)=135
2.4.1. Political Access=136
2.4.2. Educational Access=136
2.4.3. Employment Access=137
2.4.4. Legal Access=138
2.5. Rising Backlash against Civil Rights Linguistic Access Laws Expressed through English-Only Initiatives during a Period of Increased Immigration from Latin America and Asia(1980s to 1990s)=139
2.5.1. Advancing English-Only Policies in the 1980s and 1990s=140
2.5.2. Continuing Struggle for Civil Rights=141
2.5.3. Advancing Non-English Languages=145
2.6. Escalating Nationalistic and Anti-Immigrant Sentiments Expressed through English-Only Legislation in Response to Terrorist Aggression, Dramatic Demographic Shifts, and Changing Economic Conditions(2000 to 2010)=145
2.6.1. The Unprecedented Number and Scope of English-Only Initiatives=147
2.6.2. Continued Struggle for Equal Rights=147
3. Conclusion=152
Chapter 6. Bridging the Language Gap : Access to Due Process=155
1. Federal Rules of Procedure=155
2. Precursors to the Federal Court Interpreters Act=156
3. Protection of Constitutional Rights by the Interpreter=157
4. Early Cases Concerning Interpreters=158
5. Court Interpretation Before 1978=159
5.1. Discretion of the Court to Appoint an Interpreter=159
5.2. A Constitutional Approach : The Concept of "Linguistic Presence" and Right of Confrontation=160
5.3. The Waiver of the Right to an Interpreter=163
5.4. Ad Hoc Interpreters=164
5.4.1. Using Bilingual Attorneys as Interpreters=164
5.4.2. Appointment of Friends, Relatives, or Adversaries of the Defendant=165
6. Deficient Interpreting Skills=165
7. Recognizing the Pervasiveness of Inadequate Interpretation=166
Chapter 7. The Court Interpreters Act=169
1. The Court Interpreters Act of 1978=169
1.1. Provisions of the Court Interpreters Act=169
1.2. Recognition of Defendant's Needs=170
1.3. Recognition of the Need for Quality=170
1.4. Mandating Interpreters=171
2. Benefits of the Court Interpreters Act=171
2.1. Improved and Standardized Pay Scales=172
2.2. The Ripple Effect=173
2.3. International Impact=173
3. Shortcomings of the Court Interpreters Act=174
3.1. Determining Linguistic Competency=174
3.2. Training, Testing, and the Lack of Competent Interpreters=175
4. Monitoring the Court Interpreters Act=176
4.1. Federal Court Interpreters Advisory Board=177
4.1.1. Establish Criteria to Trigger Certification=177
4.1.2. Establish Guidelines for "Professionally or Otherwise Qualified Interpreters"=178
4.1.3. Proposed Pay Schedules for Freelance Interpreters=180
4.1.4. Orientation Program for "Professionally Qualified/Language Skilled" Interpreters=180
4.1.5. Develop a Code of Professional Conduct=181
4.1.6. Continuing Education=181
5. The Court Interpreters Amendments Act of 1988=181
6. The Court Interpreters Act as Amended―Interim Regulations=183
Chapter 8. Continuing Access Problems in Federal Courts after the Court Interpreters Act of 1978=185
1. Introduction=185
2. Should the Defendant Have Been Appointed an Interpreter?=187
2.1. Court's Mistaken Assumption That All Biographical Information Is Predictive of Language Proficiency=188
2.2. Court Errs by Relying on Defendant to Self-Assess English Proficiency=190
2.2.1. Underestimating the Difficulty of Self-Assessment of English Proficiency for an Unknown Setting=191
2.2.2. Ignoring the Effect of an LEP Person's Cultural Beliefs and Practices in Self-Assessing English Proficiency=192
2.3. Courts Wrongfully Rely on Counsel Regarding Defendant's English Proficiency=193
2.4. Court's Improper Assessment of English Proficiency Using Close-Ended Questions=195
3. Whom Should the Court Appoint as Interpreter?=197
3.1. Courts' Continued Use of Ad Hoc Interpreters=197
3.1.1. Use of Family Members as Interpreters=197
3.1.2. Use of Noncertified Interpreters=198
3.1.3. Use of Attorneys as Interpreters=199
3.2. Court Unduly Relies on Counsel to Object to Unqualified Interpreters=199
4. Is Interpreter Error Sufficient to Require Reversal on Appeal?=200
4.1. Courts' Failure to Understand the Effect of Interpreter Errors on Linguistic Presence=201
4.2. Court's Misinterpretation of Defendant's Silence as Acceptance of Interpreter Performance=202
4.2.1. Judges' Unfounded Fear of Defendant's "Abuse" of the Judicial System=203
5. Identifying Problems and Suggestions for Moving toward Language Access in the Courts=205
5.1. High Standard of Review(Procedural Problems)=205
5.2. Trial Court's Broad Discretion(Substantive Problem)=207
5.3. Towards a Unified Approach to Deciding Interpreter Cases=207
5.4. Evaluating the LEP Individual's Language Accommodation Needs=209
5.4.1. Assessment of Interpreter Competence=210
5.4.2. Circumscribing Judge's Discretion through the Use of a Linguistically Sound Voir Dire=211
5.5. Lack of Knowledge Regarding Language Accommodation Issues=211
5.5.1. Lawyers Should Assume the Role of Linguistic Access Advocate=212
5.5.2. Judges Should Assume a More Proactive Role as Guarantors of Linguistic Access=213
5.6. The Court Interpreting Profession Should Take a More Assertive Role in Promoting Equal Access to Justice through Competent Interpretation and Adherence to Ethical Standards=213
6. Conclusion=214
Chapter 9. Court Interpretation at the State and Local Court Level=215
1. Brief Overview of Interpreting in State and Local Courts=215
2. Obstacles to the Equal Provision of Interpreter Services in State Courts=217
2.1. Lack of Effective and Ethical Utilization of Interpreter Services=217
2.2. Inadequate Determination of the Need for Interpreter Services=218
2.3. Inadequate Articulation and Assessment of Standards for Interpreter Competency and Qualifications=219
2.4. Inconsistent Provision of Interpreters in All Settings and Stages of the Legal System=219
2.5. Inconsistent Provision of Interpreters across Criminal or Civil Proceedings=220
2.6. Inconsistent Language Accommodation in Local and Specialized Court Systems=220
2.7. Circumvention of Financial Responsibility for the Cost of Interpreter Services=221
3. States' Recognition of the Need for Court Interpreter Services : 1970s to the Present=222
3.1. Provision of Interpreter Services by the State Courts=224
3.2. Continuing Disparity in the Provision of Interpreter Services in State Courts=225
3.3. The Emergence of Court Interpreter Programs in Individual States=226
3.3.1. California=226
3.3.2. New York=228
3.3.3. New Mexico=230
3.3.4. New Jersey=231
3.3.5. Washington State=233
4. Establishment of the Consortium for Language Access in the Courts=234
4.1. Structure and Functions of the Consortium=236
4.2. Ramifications of the Consortium's Lack of Mandatory Standards and Central Authority=237
4.2.1. The Inadequacy of Tiered Certification Systems=237
4.2.2. Legal Loopholes to the Provision of Interpreter Services=239
4.2.3. Delayed Implementation of Court Interpreter Programs=239
4.2.4. Violation of LEP Persons' Fundamental Right to Equal Access=240
4.2.5. Inconsistent Testing and Reciprocity Standards=240
5. Current Status of Court Interpreting at the State and Local Level in Non-Consortium States=241
6. Future Considerations and Recommendations=242
6.1. Legislative Remedies to Support the Funding of State Court Interpreter Programs=242
6.2. Further Research and Advocacy for Language Access=243
6.3. Need for Continued DOJ Enforcement and Empirically Based Competency Criteria=243
6.4. Need for a Government Agency with Proper Authority=244
Chapter 10. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act and Its Implementation=245
1. Title VI and Language Access : Introduction=245
1.1. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964=246
1.2. Lau v. Nichols(1974)=246
1.3. Executive Orders 12250 and 13166=247
1.3.1. Executive Order 12250(1980)=247
1.3.2. Executive Order 13166(2000)=247
1.4. The Department of Justice : LEP Guidance=248
2. LEP Guidance=249
2.1. Who Must Comply=249
2.2. Four-Factor Analysis=249
2.2.1. Number or Proportion of LEP Persons=250
2.2.2. Frequency of Use=250
2.2.3. Critical Nature of Activity=250
2.2.4. Resources and Costs=251
2.3. Final Determination of Title VI Obligations=251
3. Enforcement of Title VI=253
3.1. Judicial Enforcement of Title VI=253
3.1.1. Pre-Sandoval(2001)=253
3.1.2. Sandoval(2001)=254
3.1.3. Post-Sandoval(2001)=255
3.2. The DOJ's Enforcement of Title VI : Complaint and Compliance Review Procedure=255
3.2.1. Voluntary Compliance=256
3.2.2. Enforcement through Termination of Federal Funding=256
4. The DOJ's Enforcement of the LEP Guidance=257
4.1. DOJ Enforcement of Title VI in State Courts=257
4.2. DOJ Enforcement Efforts=258
4.3. Historical Shortcomings of the LEP Guidance=261
4.4. The Future of LEP Guidance : The Colorado Judicial Department Model=262
4.5. The DOJ's Renewed Commitment to Title VI Compliance by All Federal Agencies=265
Chapter 11. Guidance to State Courts on the Provision of Meaningful Access to LEP Individuals=267
1. State Courts as the Principal Forum for the Protection of Legal Rights=267
2. Best Practice Standards for Achieving Language Access in State Courts=268
2.1. Interpreters Must Be Provided in All Types of Court Proceedings, Including Court-Annexed Proceedings and Critical Encounters Outside the Courtroom=269
2.2. Interpreting Services Must Extend beyond the Courtroom to All Court Services and Alternative Programs=270
2.3. Interpreters Must Be Provided at No Charge=270
2.4. Fiscal Pressures Should Not Obstruct LEP Individuals' Access to the Legal Process=271
2.5. Courts Have a Duty to Advise LEP Persons of Their Right to an Interpreter=272
2.6. Interpreter Services Must Be Provided in a Timely Manner=272
2.7. Language Service Providers Must Be Competent=273
2.7.1. Courts Should Assure the Competency of All Interpreters=273
2.7.2. Assure Provision of Competent Interpreting Services in Languages of Limited Diffusion(LLDs)=274
2.8. Courts Should Ensure That All Bilingual Staff and Contract Providers Are Trained and Competent=275
2.9. Qualifications and Training of a Competent Court Interpreter=276
2.10. Courts Must Provide Competent, Appropriate Translations of Vital Documents=278
2.11. Judges and Other Court Personnel Must Know When and How to Appoint Interpreters=280
3. Courts Must Develop and Implement a Language Access Plan=281
3.1. Essential Elements of a Language Access Plan(LAP)=281
3.1.1. Courts Must Document All Aspects Related to Providing Language Services=282
3.2. Recommendations for Effectively Developing and Implementing a Language Assistance Plan=283
3.3. Courts Should Initiate a Systematic Approach by Examining Language Service Needs in Every Facet of Their Activities, Programs, and Services=284
3.3.1. Linguistic Contact Map=285
3.4. Self-Monitoring Court Compliance with Title VI=286
4. Training Standards for the Implementation of an Effective LAP=286
4.1. Required Title VI Training for Court Personnel=286
5. Need for Statewide Coordination=288
Chapter 12. Interpreting for Federal Government Agencies=293
1. Department of Justice=293
1.1. Executive Office for Immigration Review=294
1.2. Federal Bureau of Investigation=297
1.2.1. The FBI's National Virtual Translation Center=298
2. Department of Homeland Security=298
2.1. Department of Homeland Security Immigration and Border Agencies=300
2.2. United States Coast Guard=301
3. Department of Defense=302
4. State Department=303
4.1. Office of Language Services=304
4.1.1. Interpreting Division=304
4.1.2. Translating Division=305
5. Federal Interagency Language Roundtable=305
6. Conclusion=306
Chapter 13. Court Interpreting Outside the U.S.=307
1. Introduction=307
2. International Tribunals=308
2.1. United Nations Tribunals=308
2.2. Regional Tribunals=309
2.2.1. The Americas=309
2.2.2. Africa=310
2.2.3. Europe=310
3. National Court Systems=313
3.1. Asia=313
3.2. Latin America=315
3.3. Africa=315
3.4. Canada=316
3.5. Australia=320
3.5.1. National Accreditation=321
3.6. The United Kingdom=323
3.6.1. Language Rights=323
4. Conclusion=324
Unit 2. Legal Overview
Chapter 14. Overview of the U.S. Government=329
1. Introduction=329
2. Definition of Law=329
3. Overview of the U.S. Government=330
Chapter 15. Overview of the U.S. Criminal Justice System=333
1. Introduction=333
2. The Constitution and Its Amendments=333
3. Criminal Law=335
4. Burden of Proof=336
5. Punishment=337
6. The Judicial Setting=337
7. Distinctions Among Courts=338
8. Jurisdiction=339
9. State Courts=339
10. Federal Courts=340
11. Other Agencies and Officials=342
12. Civil Law=343
13. The Adversarial System=345
Chapter 16. Criminal Procedure=347
1. Pre- and Post-Arrest Investigations=347
2. Arrest=347
2.1. Types of Criminal Offenses=348
2.2. Search=348
2.3. Advisement of Rights(Miranda Warning)=349
2.3.1. History=349
2.3.2. Elements of the Miranda Warning=349
2.3.3. Reading of the Miranda Warnings=350
2.3.4. Subsequent Developments and Known Issues=351
2.3.5. Additional Rights of Foreign Nationals=352
2.4. Booking=352
2.5. Charging=353
3. Initial Appearance=354
4. Preliminary Hearing or Grand Jury Proceedings=355
5. Arraignments in Courts of General Jurisdiction=356
6. Pretrial Procedures=357
6.1. Pretrial Motions=357
6.2. Disposition of Cases Other Than by Trial=359
6.2.1. Plea Bargains=359
6.2.2. Pretrial Diversion=361
6.2.3. Compromise=361
6.3. Pretrial or Status Conferences and Omnibus Hearings=361
6.4. Bail=362
6.4.1. Opportunities for Bail=362
7. The Trial=364
7.1. Impaneling the Jury=365
7.2. Opening Statements=367
7.3. Presentation of Evidence=367
7.3.1. Testimonial Evidence=367
7.3.2. Tangible Evidence=368
7.4. Objections=369
7.4.1. Objections to Questions=370
7.4.2. Objections to Answers=372
7.4.3. Objections to Exhibits=372
7.5. Resting the Case=373
7.6. The Defense=373
7.7. Rebuttals=373
7.8. Closing Arguments=374
7.9. Final Jury Instructions=374
7.9.1. General Instructions=375
7.9.2. Special Instructions=377
7.10. Bailiff's Oath=377
7.11. Jury Deliberations=377
7.12. Hung Jury=378
7.13. Verdict=378
8. Sentencing=378
8.1. Presentencing Report=379
8.2. Sentencing at the State Level=379
8.3. Sentencing at the Federal Level=380
9. Retributive/Restorative/Therapeutic Justice=382
10. Appeals=384
Chapter 17. Comparative Legal Traditions and the Interpreter=385
1. Introduction=385
2. Comparative Law Defined=385
2.1. Complexities in Comparative Law=386
2.2. Professed and Underlying Values=386
3. The Common Law or Anglo-American Tradition=387
3.1. History=387
3.2. The Players in the Common Law System=387
3.2.1. Role of the Judge in the Common Law System=388
3.3. Procedure and Trials in the Common Law Tradition=388
4. The Civil Law or Romano-Germanic Tradition=389
4.1 History=389
4.1.1. Two Different Meanings of "Civil Law"=389
4.1.2. The Justinian Compilation=390
4.1.3. The Reception of Roman Law in the Western World and Globally=390
4.1.4. Modern Iterations of Roman Law=391
4.1.5. General Principles of Law=392
4.1.6. The Players in the Civil Law System=392
5. Comparison of Civil and Common Law Families=394
5.1. Principles versus Procedures=394
5.2. Sources of Law=394
5.3. The Role of Precedent=395
5.4. Public and Private Law=395
5.5. Notary Public=396
6. Criminal Procedure in Civil Law Jurisdictions=396
6.1. Common Beliefs=397
6.1.1. Presumption of Innocence=397
6.1.2. Jury Trials=397
6.1.3. Adversarial Nature=397
6.2. Traditional Criminal Procedure=397
6.2.1. Preliminary Investigation=398
6.2.2. Dismissal=398
6.2.3. Bail=398
6.2.4. The Court-Centered Approach=398
6.2.5. Public and Private Prosecutors=399
6.2.6. Trial=399
6.2.7. Testimony=399
6.2.8. Composition of the Court=400
6.2.9. Appeals=400
6.3. The Changing Face of Criminal Procedure in Latin America=401
6.3.1. Chile/Chihuahua Case Study=402
7. The Socialist Law Tradition or Socialist Law Family=404
8. Islamic or Sharia Law=405
8.1. Definition=405
8.2. Branches=406
8.3. Modern History=406
8.4. Contemporary Practice=406
8.5. Legal and Court Proceedings=406
9. Mixed Legal Traditions : The Navajo Nation=407
Unit 3. Utilization of Interpreter Services
Chapter 18. The Role of the Court Interpreter in the U.S. Legal System=411
1. The Court Interpreter Defined=411
2. Rationales for the Use of Interpreters in the U.S. Legal System=412
2.1. The Fourth Amendment=412
2.2. The Fifth Amendment=413
2.3. The Sixth Amendment=414
2.4. The Eighth Amendment=415
3. Legal Status of the Court Interpreter=415
3.1. The Court Interpreter's Dual Roles : Court's Expert and Officer of the Court=416
3.1.1. Understanding the Court Interpreter's Dual Role=417
3.1.2. González Ethics Case Study : Interpreters Offering Expert Opinion Outside Expertise=419
3.1.3. Courts Compelling Interpreters to Exceed Ethical Boundaries=421
3.2. Legal Standards Governing the Interpreter as Expert Witness=422
3.2.1. Daubert Expert Witness Standard=422
3.3. A Reconceptualization of the Interpreter as an Officer of the Court=424
3.3.1. The Court Interpreter as Language Access Specialist=425
Chapter 19. The Use of Interpreters at Specific Stages of the Criminal Justice Process=427
1. Pros and Cons of CI and SI in the Judicial Setting=427
2. Arrest=432
3. Interviews=433
4. Initial Appearance=433
5. Pretrial Motions and Status Conferences=434
6. Trials=435
7. Post-Trial Procedures=435
8. Appeals=436
9. Multiple Defendants=436
10. Multiple Language Proceedings, Relay Interpreting=437
11. Interpreting for LEP Jurors=438
12. Other Legal Settings=438
13. Juvenile Courts=439
Chapter 20. Language Accommodation Needs in the Custodial Interrogation Stage of the Criminal Justice System=443
1. Current State of Interrogation Policy with Regard to LEP Populations=444
1.1. Lack of Compliance with Legal Obligations to Provide Meaningful Language Access in Custodial Interrogations=445
1.2. International Court of Justice Recognized Unequal Treatment of LEP Persons in U.S. Custodial Interrogations=446
1.3. Lack of Competent Interpreter Services Produces Unreliable Evidence, False Confessions, and Wrongful Convictions=446
2. The Miranda Rights : Protection against Involuntary Statements and False Confessions in Custodial Interrogation=448
2.1. Pre-Miranda(1966) History=449
2.2. Miranda v. Arizona, 1966 : The Miranda Rights=449
2.2.1. Stricter Criteria for Evaluating Legal Invocation of Miranda Rights=450
2.3. Miranda Rights Comprehension=452
2.3.1. Miranda Comprehension Requires Knowledge of the U.S. Criminal Justice System=453
2.3.2. Miranda Rights Complexity=455
2.4. High Correlation between Noncomprehension of Miranda Rights and Miranda Waiver=462
2.5. High Correlation Between Lack of Miranda Comprehension and False Confession=463
3. The Need for Court Interpretation Standards in Custodial Interrogations=463
3.1. Goals of the Custodial Interrogation=464
3.2. False Confessions : An Increasingly Recognized Phenomenon=465
3.3. Pervasive Belief that Interrogation Tactics Do Not Cause False Confessions=466
3.4. Recognition of Vulnerable Persons Who Require Extra Consideration in Miranda Rights Advisals and Custodial Interrogations=467
3.5. Situation-Based Factors in False Confessions=468
3.6. LEPs Should Be Considered a Vulnerable Class Requiring Accommodations and Extra Consideration=469
4. Barrier to Justice for LEP Suspects : Increased Use of Police Officers as Interpreters and Foreign Language Interrogators in Custodial Interrogations=471
4.1. The Use of Putative Law Enforcement(PLE) Interpreters Systematically Obstructs Justice for LEP Suspects=473
4.2. The Use of Putative Law Enforcement(PLE) Interpreters Violates Professional Interpreting Standards as Well as Legal Requirements=477
4.2.1. PLE Interpreters as Transcribers of Evidence Should Be Prohibited=478
4.3. PLE Interpreters Heighten Coercive Effects of Interrogation for LEP Suspects=478
4.3.1. Switching Footing Enhances Coercion and Subverts Miranda=479
4.4. Denying Language Accommodations Enhances Interrogator Power=480
4.4.1. Fear and Anxiety Compromise Language Proficiency=481
4.5. Need to Prohibit the Use of PLE Interpreters in Custodial Interrogations=482
5. Cultural Beliefs and Assumptions Conflict with Understanding the Miranda Rights=483
5.1. LEP Suspect Dependence on Cultural Schema and Knowledge of Home Country's Criminal Justice System=483
5.2. LEP Suspects of Mexican Origin : Fear of Police and Torture=485
5.3. Culturally Determined Tendencies of LEP Suspects=486
6. Sociolinguistic Effects of the Custodial Interrogation on the LEP Suspect=488
6.1. The Asymmetrical Power Relationship and Its Effects on LEP Suspects=488
6.2. Pattern of Acquiescent Responses Used by LEP Suspects=488
6.3. LEP and Other Marginalized Populations Use Indirect Imperative and Polite Interrogative Forms=489
6.4. Cross-Cultural Communication and Custodial Interrogations of LEP Suspects=490
6.5. LEP Suspects Accommodate Nonproficient Police Speech for Social Approval=491
6.5.1. Inadequate Language Accommodations Increase Police Power by Forcing LEP Suspects to Assume the Role of Language Assistant or Mediator=492
7. Interrogation Tactics and the LEP Suspect=493
7.1. Pre-Miranda Techniques and Conditions Used to Increase Suspect Vulnerability=493
7.1.1. Isolation and Duration of Interrogation Promotes Anxiety and Enhances Officers' Coercive Power=493
7.1.2. Mirandizing Suspects in a State of Sleep Inertia or Sleep Deprivation=494
7.1.3. Handcuffs or Similar Restraints Increase Police Power and Suspect Dependence=494
7.1.4. Failure to Inform the Suspect of Charges=495
7.2. Tactics that Minimize the Importance of Miranda Rights=496
7.2.1. Prefaces to Miranda Rights that Minimize or Countermand Protections=496
7.2.2. Rapport Building to Distract from the Adversarial Nature of Interrogation and Importance of Miranda Rights=500
7.2.3. Linguistic Manipulation of Waiver Question=501
7.2.4. Verbal Dominance and Failure to Address Requests for Clarification and Functional Invocations=502
7.2.5. Not Providing Ample Time to Contemplate Waiver=505
7.3. General Interrogation Tactics=506
7.3.1. Minimization Tactics=506
7.3.2. Maximization Tactics=507
7.4. Question Types=512
7.4.1. Yes/No and Other Close-Ended Questions=513
7.4.2. Leading Questions=514
7.4.3. Tag Questions=515
7.4.4. Compound and Compound-Complex Questions=516
7.4.5. Serial Questions=517
7.4.6. Monologues=518
8. The Construction of False Confessions in Cases Involving LEP Suspects=518
8.1. The Case of Mr. Juan Lara=520
8.2. The Case of Mr. Reynaldo Ramos=522
9. Best Practice Recommendations=525
9.1. Law Enforcement Should Be Required to Use PCI Interpreter ervices for All Custodial Interrogations and Miranda Advisals=525
9.2. All Custodial Interrogations and Miranda Advisals Should Be Audio and Video Recorded to Safeguard Suspect Rights, Promote Transparency, Reduce Coercive Practices, and Provide Pertinent Information to Triers of Fact=525
9.2.1. Failure to Record Perpetuates Overly Coercive Police Practices and Heightens the Risk of False and Unreliable Confessions=526
9.2.1.1. Positioning of the Interpreter in Recorded Custodial Interrogations=527
9.3. Judges and Attorneys Should Be Skeptical of Evidence Produced from Interrogations Involving LEP Suspects When Police Interpreters or Alleged "Bilingual" Interrogators Are Used=527
9.4. In the Evaluation of Involuntary Statements or False Confessions, Courts Should Take into Account the Cultural and Linguistic Factors That Intensify LEP Suspects' Vulnerability to Coercive Police Practices, and Should Rely on Expert Opinion=528
9.5. Judges Should Be Aware of the Testing Requirements Used to Validate Allegedly Bilingual Officers and Seek Insight into the Legitimacy of These Testing Instruments through Expert Testimony=528
9.6. A Linguistically Sound Version of the Miranda Rights Should Be Developed and Standardized for Use in All Police Agencies in the U.S.=529
9.7. A Miranda Rights Advisal Should Be Crafted for LEP Persons and Other Vulnerable Groups=529
9.8. Replace Close-Ended Question Types in Miranda Rights Advisals with Open-Ended Questions That Invoke Narrative Responses=530
Unit 4. LEP Guidance for Judges and Attorneys
Chapter 21. Judges' Guide to Working with Interpreters and LEP Litigants=533
1. Introduction : The Judge as Guarantor of Linguistic Access=533
2. The Role of the Court Interpreter=534
3. Legal Obligations to Appoint a Court Interpreter=534
3.1. Constitutional Right to an Interpreter=534
3.1.1. State Criminal Proceedings=535
3.1.2. State Civil Proceedings=535
3.2. Statutory Right to an Interpreter in Federal Criminal and Civil Proceedings=536
3.3. Right to an Interpreter under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964=536
4. Evaluating LEP Litigants' Language Accommodation Needs=536
4.1. BICS and CALP : An Important Framework for Understanding the Need for Advanced English Language Proficiency to Fully Participate in the Legal Setting=537
4.2. Fundamentals Model Voir Dire for Eliciting an LEP Person's Relevant Sociolinguistic Background Information and a Language Sample=537
4.2.1. Sociolinguistic Background Factors=539
4.2.2. Assessing the Language Sample=542
4.2.2.1. Evaluating the Narrative Response=542
4.2.2.2. Assessing the Cross-Examination Responses=544
4.2.2.3. Reviewing the Answers to Legal Terminology=545
4.3. Making the Final Decision to Appoint an Interpreter=546
4.3.1. Judges Should Employ a Rebuttable Presumption and Err on the Side of Caution=547
4.3.2. An LEP Person's Belief That He Does Not Need an Interpreter Is Unreliable=547
4.3.3. Do Not Rely on Attorneys' Assurance That There Is No Language Problem or Failure to Request an Interpreter=548
4.3.4. Any Requests for Interpreters Should be Considered Bona Fide and Granted=548
4.4. Court Interpreters Should Be Appointed in All Stages of the Legal Process and All Legal and Quasi-Legal Proceedings=549
4.5. Court Interpreters Must Be Provided at No Charge=549
4.6. Waiver of a Court Interpreter=550
4.6.1. Who Can Waive the Right to An Interpreter?=550
4.6.2. Ensuring a Knowing, Intelligent, and Voluntary Waiver of an Interpreter=550
5. Judges Must Appoint Competent, Certified or Qualified Court Interpreters=551
5.1. Basic Knowledge and Skill Required by Court Interpreters=551
5.2. Certified Interpreters are Presumed Qualified and Should Be Preferred=551
5.2.1. Postpone Proceedings until a Certified Interpreter Can Be Made Available=552
5.2.2. Maintain Database of Certified and Otherwise Qualified Interpreters=553
5.3. Selection and Appointment of Otherwise Qualified, Noncertified Interpreters=553
5.3.1. A Review of Federal Court Categories for "Otherwise Qualified" Interpreters=554
5.3.2. Systematic Procedure to Assess Noncertified Interpreters' Qualifications=554
5.4. Voir Dire to Determine Interpreter Competency=557
5.5. Making the Final Decision Regarding Noncertified Interpreter Competence=562
5.5.1. Appoint Interpreters Who Speak the Language of the Client=562
5.5.2. Judges and Attorneys Should Not Serve as Interpreters=563
5.5.3. Translators Are Not Interpreters=564
5.6. Delegate Authority to Determine Noncertified Interpreter Competency=564
5.7. Challenges to Qualifications of Interpreters=564
5.8. Removal of Interpreter=565
5.9. Telephonic Interpreters=565
6. Interpreting Basics=565
6.1. Modes of Interpretation and Their Use in the Legal Setting=565
6.2. Sociolinguistic Issues=567
6.2.1. Meaning-Based versus Literal Interpretation=567
6.2.2. Bridging the Cultural Gap=568
6.2.3. Monitoring Interpretation in Sexual Assault Cases=569
7. Ensuring Quality Interpretation during Court Proceedings=570
7.1. Proper Court Interpreting Protocol=570
7.1.1. Interpreters Should Interpret Everything without Modifications, Alterations, or Omissions to Achieve Legal Equivalence and Meaningful Comprehension=570
7.1.2. Use Qualified Bilingual Personnel or an Interpreter from Start to Finish=571
7.1.3. LEP Litigants Should Be Addressed Directly=572
7.1.4. Interpreters Should Only Interpret for One Party at a Time=572
7.1.5. Judges Should Instruct All Legal Actors to Modify Their Speech Patterns=573
7.1.6. Proper Use of Relay Interpreting=573
7.1.7. LEP Witness and Defendant of the Same Language=573
7.1.8. Interpreters Should Interpret Entire Utterance for LEP Persons Who Codeswitch=574
7.1.9. Inclusion of Bilingual Jurors=574
7.2. Addressing Interpreters' Needs in Order to Minimize Errors=575
7.2.1. Provide Appropriate Case Information for Interpreter Preparation=575
7.2.2. Ensure Timely Appointment of Interpreters=576
7.2.3. Use Team Interpreting or Rotate Interpreters=576
7.2.4. Address Interpreters' Need for Audibility and Close Proximity to Speaker=578
7.2.5. Grant Requests for Repetition or Rephrasing=579
7.2.6. Permit Interpreters Access to Needed Resources=579
7.2.7. Permit and Encourage Interpreters to Take Notes in All Proceedings=580
7.3. Monitoring Interpreter Performance=580
7.4. Handling Interpreting Error=581
7.4.1. Self-Corrections of Interpreting Error=581
7.4.2. Objections to Interpretation=581
7.5. Seek Guidance from Interpreters as Language Access Specialists=582
7.5.1. Be Cautious about Seeking Expert Cultural Advice from Interpreters=582
7.5.2. Assist Interpreters to Stay within Their Scope of Practice=583
8. Preliminary Instructions to Court Actors, Jury, Witnesses, and LEP Litigants Regarding the Use of Interpreters in Court=583
8.1. General Instructions to the Court Regarding the Role of the Interpreter=584
8.2. Instructions to the LEP Defendant Regarding the Role of the Interpreter=584
8.3. Instructions to Witnesses Regarding the Role of the Interpreter=585
8.4. Instructions for Jurors Regarding the Role of the Interpreter and Challenge to In-Court Interpretations=586
9. Admitting Foreign Language Evidence : Documents, Recordings, and Transcription/Translations=587
9.1. Addressing Forensic Transcription/Translation Disputes=588
9.1.1. Best Judicial Practice in Addressing Transcription/Translation Disputes=589
9.1.2. Judicial Appointment of Independent FTT Specialist=589
9.2. Transcriptions/Translations as Best Evidence=590
9.3. Playing Foreign Language Recordings in Court=590
9.4. Jury Instructions for the Presentation of Transcription/Translations as Evidence=591
9.4.1. Accuracy of Transcription/Translation Not in Dispute=591
9.4.2. Accuracy of Transcription/Translation in Dispute=592
10. Ethical Considerations=593
11. Training on Interpretation Issues=593
12. Interpreting Technology=594
Chapter 22. Attorneys' Guide to Working with Interpreters and LEP Litigants=595
1. Introduction=595
2. The Role of the Attorney=596
3. The Attorney and the LEP Client=598
3.1. Attorneys Need to Inform LEP Clients about the U.S. Criminal Justice System=599
3.2. LEP Defendants Rely on Inapplicable Cultural Schema Regarding the U.S. Criminal Justice System=603
3.3. Attorneys Must Be Aware of Culturally Determined Tendencies and Behaviors among LEP Clients=604
3.3.1. Attorneys Should Modify Communication Style with LEP Clients and Monitor Comprehension=605
4. Attorneys Must Ensure the Provision of an Interpreter throughout the Continuum of the Legal Process=606
4.1. Legal Foundations for the Appointment of Interpreters=606
4.1.1. Protect the Linguistic Presence of the LEP Individual=607
4.2. Understand the Interpreter's Role as Language Intermediary=607
4.2.1. Become Familiar with Interpreter Codes of Ethics=607
4.2.2. Do Not Ask Interpreters to Perform Duties Outside of the Scope of Their Role as Interpreter=608
4.2.2.1. Do Not Rely on the Interpreter as an Expert in Areas That Require Expert Testimony Outside of Interpretation and Translation=608
4.2.3. Provide an Interpreter for LEP Persons throughout All Interactions with Clients as Well as for All Out-of-Court Events=609
4.2.4. Assess the Client's Need for an Interpreter=610
4.2.5. Determine the Client's Dominant Language and Language Variety=611
4.2.6. Assure the Interpreter's Neutrality and Confidentiality=612
4.2.7. Ensure that the Interpreter is Certified or Has Expert Interpreting Qualifications in the Language of the Client=612
4.2.8. Ensure that the Interpreter and Client Can Communicate and That the Interpreter Is Able to Effectively Interpret the Client's Language=613
4.2.9. Guarantee That an Interpreter Communicates Effectively in English=614
4.2.10. Ensure Interpreter Has Subject Matter Expertise=614
4.2.11. Be Cautious in the Selection of an Interpreter=614
4.2.12. Ensure Interpreters Are Provided the Ethical Canons from the Professional Entities Involved in the Case=615
4.2.13. Request That the Court Appoint an Interpreter Free of Charge=616
4.2.14. Petition for Preauthorization of Interpreter Fees for Out-of-Court Interpreter Use=616
4.2.15. Schedule the Interpreter Promptly=617
4.2.16. Use the Same Interpreter for all Client Visits Whenever Possible=617
4.2.17. Attorneys Should Not Serve as Interpreters=617
4.3. Attorney's Obligation to Explain the Role of an Interpreter to the LEP Client=618
4.3.1. Prepare the LEP Client for Working with an Interpreter in Court or in a Legal Setting=618
4.4. Attorney's Responsibilities in Working with an Interpreter=619
4.4.1. Assist the Interpreter to Prepare for Court Proceedings=619
4.4.2. Request That an Interpreter Prepare for Interpretation of Slang, Idiomatic Speech, Code, or Jargon of the Client=620
4.4.3. Adjust Speech for Ease of Interpreting=621
4.4.4. Ensure That an Interpreter Conveys Pragmatic Force=621
4.4.5. Uphold the Interpreter and Attorney-Client Privilege and Confidentiality=622
5. Preparation for Hearings and Trial=623
5.1. Attorneys Should Advise LEP Clients of Consular Rights=623
5.1.1. Failure to Utilize Consular Assistance May Amount to Ineffective Assistance of Counsel=625
5.2. Request the Translation of all Pertinent Documents to Which a Native English Speaker Would Have Access=626
5.3. Order an Independent Transcription/Translation of the Defendant's Statement=626
5.4. Request That all Proceedings Be Recorded=626
5.5. Request a Bicultural/Bilingual Expert for All Evaluations=627
5.5.1. Obtain an Independent Psychological or Other Expert Evaluation=627
5.6. Jury Considerations=629
5.7. Specific Arguments Regarding Custodial Interrogation, Miranda, and Consent Searches=630
5.7.1. Custodial Interrogations and Consent Searches=630
5.7.2. Challenges to Miranda Waivers=632
6. Steps for Attorneys at Hearings and Trial=633
6.1. Request That Interpreter Qualifications Be Enumerated on the Record=633
6.2. Ensure That the Interpreter Was Administered the Statutorily Required Oath=633
6.3. Request Team Interpreting=634
6.3.1. Request an Interpreter for Counsel Table=634
6.4. Request a Standby Interpreter=634
6.5. Ensure the Client's Right to an Appeal by Properly Making a Record=635
6.6. Monitor the Interpreter's Performance in Court and All Other Legal Events=635
6.6.1. Types of Interpreter Errors=636
6.7. Document Request for the Interpreter and All Concerns Regarding Professional Relationship with the Interpreter=637
6.8. Educate the Judge and Jury about Important Cross-Cultural Communication Issues That May Interfere with Judging Credibility or Trustworthiness=637
7. Conclusion=638
Unit 5. Management of Court Interpreter Services
Chapter 23. Management, Recruitment, and Assessment of Interpreters=641
1. Need for Establishment of the Office of Court Interpreting Services and the Interpreter Supervisor=641
2. Model Office of Court Interpreter Services=641
3. Ideal Interpreter Supervisor=642
3.1. Desirable Personal Characteristics=643
3.2. Assignment and Supervisory Functions=643
3.3. Recruitment=644
3.3.1. The Recruitment Process=644
3.3.2. Certified Interpreters=644
3.3.3. Noncertified Languages=646
4. Assessment Procedures=651
4.1. Interview=652
4.2. Biographical Sketch=653
4.3. Standardized Written Proficiency Examinations=653
4.4. Shadowing=654
4.5. Memory Test=655
4.6. Back-Translation Technique=656
4.6.1. Procedure=657
4.6.2. Scoring=658
4.7. Other Assessment Possibilities=658
Chapter 24. Orientation, Training, and Monitoring of Interpreters=659
1. Orientation of New Interpreters=659
1.1. General Orientation Procedure=660
1.2. Emergency Orientation Procedure=661
2. Short-Term and Inservice Training=662
3. Long-Term Training=664
4. Monitoring of Interpreters=665
Chapter 25. Administrative Issues=669
1. Assignment Procedures=669
1.1. Availability Problems=671
1.2. Emergency Assignments=671
1.3. Management of Translation Services=672
2. Records and Statistical Reporting=674
2.1. Interpreter Assignments Database=674
2.2. Electronic Calendars=674
2.3. Invoices or Payroll Claims=675
3. Fee Schedules=675
3.1. Comparison of Fees=678
3.2. Pay Rates and Studies=679
3.3. Staff Interpreter Benefits=682
4. Management of Multidefendant Hearings=683
5. Practical Aspects of Language Access to the Courts=685
5.1. The Physical Layout of the Court=685
5.2. Tracking Requests for Accommodations and Interpreted Court Proceedings=686
5.3. "Who's Who in Court"=686
5.4. The Role of the Court Interpreter=686
5.5. Interpreter's Oath=687
Unit 6. Language and the Interpreter
Chapter 26. The Nature of Language=691
1. The Structure of Language=692
1.1. Phonology=693
1.2. Morphology=694
1.2.1. Morphology and the Creation of New Words=695
1.3. Syntax=696
1.3.1. Universal Grammar=699
1.4. Semantics=699
2. Language Acquisition=700
2.1. Stages of Childhood Language Acquisition=701
2.2. Second Language Acquisition=701
2.2.1. Bilingualism=702
3. Sociolinguistics=703
3.1. Dell Hymes' SPEAKING Model=704
3.1.1. The SPEAKING Model Applied to a Custodial Interrogation of an LEP Suspect=704
3.2. Intercultural Communication=706
4. Sociolinguistic Variables That Impact Language Proficiency=708
4.1. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency(BICS and CALP)=708
4.2. Age of Arrival in the U.S.=710
4.3. Occupation(Nonlanguage-Dependent Labor versus Language-Dependent Labor)=710
4.4. Educational Attainment=711
4.5. Masking Language Deficiency : "Linguistic Bravado"=712
4.6. Codeswitching=712
4.6.1. Codeswitching and Language Proficiency=713
5. Defining and Assessing Language Proficiency=714
5.1. Communicative Competence Model=715
5.1.1. Grammatical Competence=715
5.1.2. Discourse Competence=716
5.1.3. Sociocultural Competence=716
5.1.4. Strategic Competence=717
5.2. Measuring Language Proficiency in High-Stakes Situations=718
5.3. Oral Proficiency Instruments(OPIs) for Language Assessment=718
5.3.1. Oral Proficiency Scales : The Interagency Language Roundtable(ILR) and the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages(ACTFL)=719
6. Forensic Linguistics=723
Chapter 27. Aspects of Meaning=725
1. Language and Meaning=725
2. Linguistic Meaning=726
2.1. Nuances of Words=727
2.2. Grammatical Usage and Meaning=727
2.3. Lexical Variation and Meaning=729
2.3.1. Semantic Fields=731
2.4. Language Variation=732
2.4.1. Language Varieties and Interpretation=732
2.4.2. Speech Repertoire=734
2.5. Cultural Meaning=735
2.6. Culturally Bound Terms=736
3. Speaker Meaning=737
3.1. Metaphors=737
3.2. Idioms=738
3.2.1. The Interpreter and Idioms=739
3.3. Proverbs=740
3.4. Sarcasm and Irony=741
4. Speaker Meaning and Pragmatics=741
4.1. Speaker Meaning and Communicative Intent=742
4.2. The Importance of Context=744
5. Paralinguistic Features=745
5.1. Gestures=746
5.1.1. Learned Gestures=746
5.1.2. Instinctive Gestures=747
Chapter 28. Characteristics of Legal Language=749
1. Introduction=749
2. History and Major Influences=752
2.1. Anglo-Saxon Oral Tradition and Language=753
2.2. The Catholic Church=753
2.3. The Norman Conquest=754
2.4. The Rise of the Guild=755
2.4.1. Reliance on Formbooks=755
2.4.2. Padding=755
Chapter 29. Variation and Complexity of Legal Language=757
1. The Duke Project=758
2. The González Study=759
2.1. Register=759
2.1.1. Register Determinants=760
2.2. Complexity Study=762
2.2.1. Readability Assessment=762
2.2.2. Lexical Examination=763
2.2.3. Structural Study=764
2.2.4. Legal Expression=765
3. Implications for Court Interpreters=765
Chapter 30. Questioning Styles, Witness Testimony, and the Court Interpreter=767
1. Introduction=767
2. Manipulating Testimony=767
3. Questioning Styles in the Courtroom=768
3.1. Testimony Styles : Narrative versus Fragmented Speech=768
3.2. Altering Questions and Responses in the Courtroom=769
3.2.1. Altering English Tag Questions=770
3.2.2. Altering English Modal Interrogatives=771
3.2.3. Altering English Discourse Markers=771
3.2.4. Altering Hedges and Fillers=772
3.3. Implications for Interpreters=773
4. Powerful versus Powerless Testimony=774
4.1. Language Functions and Powerful and Powerless Speech=774
4.2. Powerful and Powerless Testimony : Implications for Court Interpreters=775
4.3. The Berk-Seligson Study=775
Chapter 31. Categories of Interpreter Error : The University of Arizona Study=779
1. Introduction=779
2. Error Categories=780
2.1. Literal Translation=780
2.2. Inadequate Language Proficiency=781
2.2.1. Grammatical Errors=781
2.2.2. Lexical Errors=782
2.3. Errors in Register Conservation=783
2.4. Distortion=784
2.5. Omission=785
2.6. Added Information=786
2.7. Protocol, Procedure, and Ethics=787
2.8. Nonconservation of Paralinguistic Elements, Hedges, and Fillers=788
3. Conclusion=788
Unit 7. Interpretation Theory and Practice
Chapter 32. Translation and Interpretation=791
1. Chapter Overview=791
2. Definition of Terms=791
3. Oral Communication=793
3.1. Speaking Circuit=793
3.2. Oral Comprehension=795
4. Interlingual Communication=798
4.1. Interpreting Process=801
4.2. Obstacles to Interlingual Communication=803
4.2.1. Ambiguity=803
4.2.2. Different Semantic Area=804
4.2.3. Less Precision in TL=805
4.2.4. Different Perspectives=805
4.2.5. Idioms=806
4.2.6. Metaphors=807
4.2.7. Syntax and Style=807
5. Techniques for Problem Solving=808
6. Incremental Intervention=811
7. Conclusion=812
Chapter 33. From Theory to Practice=813
1. Models of Translation and Interpreting=813
1.1. Triangular Models=813
1.2. Paralinguistic Models=815
1.3. Information Processing Models=815
1.4. The Effort Models=821
1.5. Application to Court Interpreting=822
2. Human Information Processing=823
2.1. Stage Theory=823
2.2. ACT Model=827
2.3. Parallel Distributive Processing=830
2.4. Constraints of ACT and PDP=832
2.5. The Simultaneous Human Information Processing Model(SHIP)=832
2.5.1. Description of SHIP's Components=833
2.5.2. Levels of Competence=838
2.5.3. Assumptions of SHIP=839
2.5.4. Processing in SHIP=842
2.6. Information Processing Today=843
2.6.1. Component Processes of Interpreting=844
2.6.2. Multitasking and Interpreting=849
2.6.3. Processing Speed in Working Memory=850
3. Expert Performance : How Interpreters Succeed in Getting the Message Across=851
Chapter 34. Simultaneous Interpretation=853
1. Definition=853
2. Simultaneous Interpreting in the Courtroom=854
3. Process of Simultaneous Interpretation=855
4. Strategies of SI=856
4.1. Analysis=857
4.2. Prediction or Anticipation=857
4.3. Numerical Information=859
4.4. Décalage=860
4.5. Queuing=861
4.6. Self-Monitoring=861
4.7. Graphic Depiction of SI Strategies=862
5. Implications for Training in SI=867
5.1. Dual-Tasking Exercises=868
5.2. Analysis Exercises=869
6. Running Summary=869
Chapter 35. Consecutive Interpretation=871
1. Definition=871
2. Skills Required=872
2.1. Listening=872
2.2. Prediction=874
2.3. Memory=875
2.3.1. Strategies for Enhancing Retention=875
2.3.2. Forgetting=877
2.4. Notetaking=878
2.4.1. Interpreter Notetaking System=879
2.4.2. Techniques=880
2.4.3. Examples=880
2.4.4. Application to Court Interpreting=884
2.4.5. Principles of Notetaking for Court Interpreting=885
2.5. Situational Control=886
3. Exercises for Improving Skills=890
3.1. Exercises to Enhance Listening/Attending Skills=890
3.2. Memory-Building Exercises=891
Chapter 36. Sight Translation=893
1. Definition=893
2. Elements of Sight Translation=894
2.1. Differences between ST and Other Modes of Interpreting=894
2.2. Conservation=895
2.3. Written Language=895
2.4. Reading Comprehension=895
2.5. Prediction=896
3. Need for More Research=896
4. Sight Translation in the Judicial Setting=897
4.1. English Documents=898
4.2. Non-English Documents=898
5. Skills Required=900
5.1. Full Command of Working Languages=901
5.2. Public Speaking=901
5.3. Mental Agility=901
6. Process of Sight Translation=902
7. Exercises=902
7.1. Public Speaking Exercises=903
7.2. Reading Ahead in Text=903
7.3. Analytical Skills=903
Chapter 37. Document Translation=907
1. Translation of Court Documents=907
1.1. Professional Translation Standards=907
1.2. The Translation Process=908
2. Types of Documents=909
2.1. Vital Documents=909
3. Achieving DOJ "Meaningful Communication and Access" Standards=911
4. Other Translated Documents=915
5. Format=917
6. Resources=917
7. Translation Protocol=920
8. Certification and Notarization=921
Unit 8. Practical Considerations and Tasks
Chapter 38. Introduction to the Courtroom and Legal Actors=925
1. The Physical Courtroom=925
2. The Legal Arena=926
2.1. Counsel Table=926
2.2. Jury Box=930
2.3. Witness Stand=931
2.4. Judge's Bench=931
3. Lockup=932
4. Legal Actors=933
4.1. The Judge=933
4.2. Courtroom Clerk=933
4.3. Court Reporter=934
4.4. Bailiffs : Marshals, Sheriffs, and Other Officers of the Court=934
4.5. Defense and Prosecution Attorneys=934
4.6. The Jurors=936
4.7. The Witnesses=936
Chapter 39. Pragmatics of Judicial Proceedings and the Interpreter=939
1. Initial Preparation=939
2. Information Gathering and Pretrial Preparation=940
2.1. The Need for Interpreters to Be Proactive : Gathering Information=940
2.2. Preparation as an Aspect of Ethics=941
2.2.1. Misunderstanding of the Interpreter's Need for Preparation=941
2.3. Importance of Punctuality=943
2.4. Interpreter Resources : The Use of Dictionaries and Glossaries in Court=943
2.5. Notetaking : An Essential Tool of the Interpreter=943
2.5.1. Notetaking during Grand Jury Proceedings=944
2.6. Prehearing Interview of a Defense Attorney for a Specific Case=944
2.6.1. Pretrial Language Assessment Interview of the Defendant=945
2.6.2. Importance of the Pretrial Language Assessment : Possible Outcomes=945
2.6.3. Explanation of the Role of the Interpreter and the Interpreting Process=948
2.7. Inquiring about Witnesses : Interviewing the Prosecutor=949
2.8. Recommending Team Interpreting=949
3. The Interpreter as Language Access Specialist=950
4. The Interpreter's Role in Criminal Proceedings=951
4.1. Jury Selection=951
4.2. Pretrial Motion=952
4.3. The Trial Phase=953
4.4. Opening Statement=953
4.5. English-Speaking Witness Examination=954
4.5.1. Defense Witness Cross-Examination=955
4.5.2. Communication between Interpreter and Defendant=955
4.5.3. Excusing the Witness=955
4.6. Examination of an LEP Witness=955
4.6.1. Interpreting Witness-Stand Testimony : Consecutive Mode=956
4.6.2. Professional Strictures Regarding Onsite Simultaneous Interpretation of a Sound File in Court=956
4.6.3. Interpreting for Nonproficient Speakers of a Foreign Language in Cases in Which Speaker Error Is Key to the Effective Use of Testimony by Legal Actors=957
4.7. Closing Argument=959
5. Instructions to the Jury=960
6. The Verdict=961
7. Sentencing=961
7.1. The Interpreter's Role at Sentencing=962
8. Communication with the Assignment Office=962
9. Responding to Challenges to Interpretation=963
10. Conclusion=963
Chapter 40. Forensic Transcription and Translation=965
1. Introduction to Forensic Transcription and Translation=965
1.1. FTT : A Two-fold Process=966
1.2. FTT : A Developing Hybrid=967
1.3. Critical Need for Reliable FTT in Custodial and Noncustodial Interrogations=968
2. Poor Quality FTT Produced by Untrained, Noncertified Bilingual Personnel=971
2.1. Failure to Recognize the Duty to Preserve Source/Minority Language in the Transcript=976
2.2. Ethical and Legal Dilemmas Caused by the Lack of Standardization=977
3. Need for Legitimization of FTT as a Branch of Legal Interpretation and Translation=978
3.1. Hindrances to the Formal Recognition of FTT as a Subfield of Legal Interpretation=979
3.2. Need for Certification in FTT=980
3.3. Master-Level FTTS Certification=981
4. Model FTTS Work Examples=982
5. Legal Standards for the Admissibility of FTT Products=987
5.1. Rule 901(a) Authentication=987
5.2. Audibility and Intelligibility of the Recording=987
5.3. Rule 702 Admissibility of Expert Testimony=988
5.3.1. Required Qualifications for FTTSs to Serve as Expert Witnesses=988
5.3.2. Establishing the Use of Empirically Sound Linguistic Methods in Producing the FTT Product=989
5.3.3. Responding to Cross-Examination=989
5.4. Disputes Regarding Accuracy of Transcription/Translations=990
5.5. Special Circumstances : Translation of Argot, Foreign Drug, or Gang Codes=990
6. Professional and Ethical Standards of FTT=991
6.1. Overarching Responsibility of the FTTS=991
6.2. FTT Transcription Goal : Meaningful Legal Equivalence(Mirror the Tape)=991
6.3. FTT Translation Goals=992
6.3.1. Meaningful Legal Equivalence:"Mirror the Transcription"=992
6.3.2. Conservation of Speaker Error and Nonstandard Usage=992
7. Required Knowledge, Skills, and Training for FTT=993
7.1. Primary Skills for the FTTS : Language Proficiency, Cultural, and Linguistic Knowledge=994
7.1.1. Master-Level FTTS=995
7.2. Required Secondary Skills for the FTTS : Perception, Cognitive Abilities, and Personal Traits=996
7.3. Recommended Training for FTT Certification=997
7.4. Master-Level FTTS Recommended Training and Credentials=997
8. Recommended Protocol for Forensic Transcription and Translation=999
8.1. Preliminary Steps=1000
8.1.1. Ethical Obligations in Accepting or Declining an Assignment=1001
8.1.2. Extraordinary Circumstances and Ethical Considerations=1001
8.1.3. Assessing the Scope of Work=1002
8.1.4. Listening to/Viewing the Recording=1002
8.1.5. Using a Team Approach=1002
8.1.6. Estimates and Costs=1003
8.1.7. FTT Work Requiring FTT Master-Level Expert Analysis and Testimony=1004
8.1.8. Accepting the Assignment=1005
8.2. Phase 1 of the FTT Process : Transcription=1006
8.2.1. Preparing for the Transcription Process=1008
8.2.2. Transcribing Audio/Video Recordings=1022
8.3. Phase 2 of the FTT Process : Translation=1023
8.3.1. Preparing for Translation=1025
8.3.2. Performing the Translation=1034
8.3.3. FTTS Notes=1034
8.4. Phase 3 of the FTT Process : Final Product=1034
8.4.1. Expect to Defend the Forensic Transcription and Translation in Court=1035
8.4.2. Model Transcription/Translation Document : Formatting and Application of Protocol and Legend=1035
8.4.3. FTT Introductory Briefing=1036
8.4.4. Certification of the Transcription/Translation=1037
8.4.5. Need for Reform in the Court Certification Process of FTT Documents=1038
9. Recommended Forensic Transcription/Translation Legend=1039
10. Policy Recommendations for the Professionalization of FTT Practice and Regulation=1041
Chapter 41. Using Language Resources and References=1043
1. Printed Resources=1043
1.1. Locating Reference Books and Materials=1043
1.2. How to Use Dictionaries=1044
1.3. The Media=1046
2. The Internet=1047
2.1. Internet Search Strategies=1048
2.2. Online Dictionaries and Resources=1049
3. Human Resources as Language References=1050
3.1. Use of the Witness as a Language Resource=1051
3.2. Attending Court Proceedings=1051
3.3. Conferring with Colleagues=1052
3.4. Contacting Experts=1053
4. Glossaries=1054
4.1. Need for Personal Glossaries=1054
4.2. Terminology Defined=1054
4.3. Compiling Glossaries=1055
Chapter 42. Technology and the Interpreter=1059
1. High Technology(Tech) in Court Interpreting=1059
1.1. High Tech Courtrooms=1059
1.1.1. Computer Applications=1061
1.1.2. Evidence Presentation Component=1061
1.1.3. Display Monitors, Whiteboards, Screens, and Courtroom Cameras=1061
1.1.4. Videoconferencing Component=1062
1.1.5. Teleconferencing=1062
1.1.6. Assistive Listening Devices and Interpreter Audio Equipment=1063
1.1.7. Radio Frequency versus IR Systems=1063
1.1.8. Digital Court Recordings=1064
1.2. Telephonic Interpreting in Federal Courts=1064
1.3. Federal Law and the Recording of Court Proceedings=1065
1.4. Case Management and Related Technology=1066
1.5. Technology in the State Courts=1067
1.6. Remote Testimony=1068
1.7. Electronic Discovery=1070
2. Technology for the Legal Interpreter and Translator=1070
2.1. In-Court Simultaneous Interpreting Equipment=1071
2.2. Real-Time Court Reporting Transcripts=1073
2.3. Overhead Projection of Documents and Other Exhibits=1073
2.4. In-Court Use of Online and Electronic Dictionaries and Other Reference Works=1074
2.4.1. In-Court Use of Handheld Electronic Dictionaries=1074
2.4.2. In-Court Mobile Internet Access=1074
3. In-Office Technological Aids for the Interpreter and Translator=1075
3.1. Personal Computers=1075
3.1.1. The Keyboard=1076
3.1.2. The Scanner=1076
3.1.3. The Display=1076
3.1.4. The Microphone=1077
3.2. Computer-Assisted Translation Tools=1077
3.3. Optical Character Recognition Systems in Translation=1078
3.4. Speech Recognition Applications=1078
3.5. Localization=1080
3.6. Translator and Interpreter Internet Communities=1081
4. Use of Technology to Aid Forensic Transcription/Translation=1081
5. Conclusion=1082
Chapter 43. Remote Interpreting : Telephonic and Videoconferencing=1083
1. History of Remote Interpreting=1083
2. Video Remote Interpreting=1084
3. Research on Remote Interpreting=1085
4. Attitudes Towards Remote Interpreting=1087
5. Guidelines for Remote Interpreting in Judiciary Settings=1089
6. Conclusion=1090
Unit 9. Professional Issues
Chapter 44. Ethics and Professional Conduct=1093
1. Code of Ethics=1093
1.1. Canon 1 : The Interpreter Shall Render a Complete and Accurate Interpretation=1096
1.1.1. Complete Interpretation=1097
1.1.2. Embellishments, Clarifications, Editing=1099
1.1.3. Nonverbal Communication=1100
1.1.4. Duty to Protect the Record=1105
1.1.5. Guessing=1114
1.1.6. Response to Challenges=1114
1.1.7. Duty to Witness=1115
1.2. Canon 2 : The Interpreter Shall Remain Impartial=1115
1.2.1. Role of the Interpreter=1116
1.2.2. Appearance of Neutrality=1116
1.2.3. Conflict of Interest=1117
1.2.4. Unobtrusiveness=1118
1.2.5. Detachment=1119
1.2.6. Gratuities=1119
1.2.7. Personal Emotions=1120
1.3. Canon 3 : The Interpreter Shall Maintain Confidentiality=1120
1.3.1. The Public and the Media=1121
1.3.2. "Off-the-Record" Remarks=1121
1.4. Canon 4 : The Interpreter Shall Confine Herself to the Role of Interpreting=1122
1.4.1. Legal Advice=1122
1.4.2. Clerical Work=1124
1.4.3. Cultural Expertise=1124
1.4.4. Instructions to Parties=1125
1.4.5. Other Problems=1126
1.5. Canon 5 : The Interpreter Shall Be Prepared for Any Type of Proceeding or Case=1127
1.5.1. Continuing Education=1128
1.5.2. Technical Terminology=1128
1.5.3. Jury Instructions=1128
1.5.4. Familiarity with the Case=1129
1.5.5. Pre-Testimony Interview=1129
1.5.6. Disqualification=1130
1.6. Canon 6 : The Interpreter Shall Ensure That the Duties of Her Office Are Carried Out under Working Conditions That Are in the Best Interest of the Court=1130
1.6.1. Periodic Breaks=1131
1.6.2. Team Interpreting=1131
1.6.3. Workload=1132
1.6.4. Audibility=1132
1.6.5. Position=1132
1.6.6. Special Equipment=1133
1.7. Canon 7 : The Interpreter Shall Be Familiar with and Adhere to All of These Ethical Standards, and Shall Maintain High Standards of Personal and Professional Conduct to Promote Public Confidence in the Administration of Justice=1133
1.7.1. Candor with the Tribunal=1133
1.7.2. Personal Conduct=1133
1.7.3. Fiscal Propriety=1134
1.7.4. Upholding the Public Trust=1134
1.8. Handling Ethical Dilemmas : The Postville Raid=1134
2. Professional Conduct=1138
2.1. Professional Attitude=1138
2.1.1. Awareness of Role=1138
2.1.2. Relations with Colleagues=1139
2.1.3. Role of the Professional Organization=1139
2.1.4. Court Interpreting and Translating Organizations=1141
2.2. Continuing Education=1142
2.2.1. Support from Court Administration=1142
2.2.2. Informal Educational Activities=1143
Chapter 45. Interpreter Education=1145
1. History of Court Interpreter Training=1145
2. Evaluation of Training Programs=1148
3. Interpreter Training Outside the United States=1149
4. Distance Education for Interpreters=1150
4.1. Evolution of Distance Education=1150
4.2. Online Interpreter Programs=1153
5. Conclusion=1157
Chapter 46. Federal Certification=1159
1. Introduction=1159
2. Initial Development=1160
3. The Written Exam=1162
3.1. Equating Studies for the Written Examination=1162
3.2. Changes in the Written Exam=1163
3.2.1. Changes to the Written Examination after 2000=1164
3.2.2. Change in Pass Score Criterion for the Written Examination=1165
3.2.3. Change in Length of the Written Examination=1166
4. The Oral Examination=1166
4.1. Assessment : Objective and Subjective=1168
4.2. Cut-Off Score=1169
4.3. Standardization of Administration=1169
4.4. Equating Studies and Trend Analyses of the Oral Examination=1170
4.5. Results of the Federal Certification Examinations : 1980-1999=1170
4.6. Changes in the Oral Exam=1171
4.7. Results of the Federal Court Certification Examination : 2000-2009=1172
5. Federal Certification Efforts for Languages Other Than Spanish=1173
5.1. Navajo=1173
5.2. Haitian Creole=1175
5.3. Certification and Otherwise Qualified Status for Languages Other Than Spanish=1176
6. Implications=1177
7. Conclusion=1179
Chapter 47. State Certification=1181
1. Consortium for Language Access in the Courts Interpreter Certification=1183
1.1. Consortium Certification Testing=1184
1.1.1. Consortium Written Examination=1184
1.1.2. Consortium Oral Court Interpreter Performance Examinations=1186
1.2. Reciprocity between Consortium States=1191
2. New York Unified Court System Interpreter Certification=1192
3. National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators(NAJIT) Certification=1194
4. Other Notable Court Interpreter Certifications=1196
4.1. New Mexico/Arizona Navajo Court Interpreter Certification=1196
4.2. California Court Interpreter Certification=1198
4.2.1. California Court Interpreter Certification Oral Performance Examination(pre-2010)=1199
4.2.2. California Administrative Hearing and Medical-Legal Interpreter Certification=1200
4.3 University of Arizona Court Interpreter Certificate of Proficiency(CICP)=1201
4.3.1 University of Arizona Municipal Court Interpreter Oral Assessment(MCIOA)=1202
4.4 American Translators Association Certification Examination=1203
5. State Criteria for Interpreters of Languages for Which There Is No Certification=1204
6. Problems with Certification Testing Combining Multiple Constructs=1205
7. Certification Model for State Courts and Other Public and Private Organizations=1206
Unit 10. Conclusion
Chapter 48. A Look to the Future=1211
1. Legal Issues=1211
1.1 Adopting a Court-Centered Model with Team Interpreting=1212
1.1.1. Multiple-Defendant Cases=1212
1.1.2. False Dichotomy Between Defense and Prosecution Interpreters=1212
1.1.3. Erroneous Bifurcation of Defense Interpreting into Defense and Proceedings Functions=1213
1.1.4. Best Practice : The Court-Centered Model with Team Interpreting=1214
1.2. "English-Only" Movement and Other Threats to Language Access=1214
1.3. Malpractice=1215
2. Professional Issues=1216
2.1. Recertification : Arguments For and Against=1216
2.1.1. Alternatives to Recertification=1217
2.2. Certification of Legal Translators=1219
2.3. Certification of Forensic Transcription and Translation Specialists=1220
2.4. Translation Memory Software and Interpretation=1221
2.5. The Role of Professional Organizations=1222
2.5.1. Need for Client Education and Raising Public Awareness=1222
2.5.2. Internal Monitoring of Interpreter Professional Practices=1222
2.5.3. Developing Competence in Smaller and Rural Courts=1223
2.5.4. Training the Next Generation of Leaders=1223
2.5.5. Improving Interpreter Competence in Ancillary Services=1223
2.6. The Multidisciplinary Interpreter=1224
2.7. Developing a Pool of Court Interpreters=1225
2.7.1. Fostering Heritage Language Development=1226
3. Interpreting in Other Sectors=1229
3.1. Immigration=1229
3.2. Administrative Agencies=1230
3.3. Healthcare=1230
4. Bilingual Personnel in Government Agencies=1231
4.1. Title VI and Government Bilingual Services=1233
5. Joint Efforts for Standardization, Training, and Testing=1234
6. Call for Research=1236
7. Conclusion=1237
Appendix A. The Court Interpreters Act of 1978=1239
Appendix B. Interim Regulations for Federal Court Interpreters=1247
Appendix C. The Court Interpreter Amendments Act of 1988=1255
Appendix D. Seltzer v. Foley(1980) Opinion=1259
Appendix E. Executive Order 13166=1269
Appendix F1. Memorandum of Understanding between the United States of America and the State of Maine Judicial Branch=1275
Appendix F2. Letter from Merrily A. Friedlander, Chief of the Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, Coordination and Review Section, to Lilia G. Judson, Executive Director of the Indiana Supreme Court=1281
Appendix F3. Letter from Thomas E. Perez, Assistant Attorney General to Chief Justice/State Court Administrator=1283
Appendix F4. Memorandum of Agreement between the United States of America and the Colorado Judicial Department=1287
Appendix F5. Executive Summary, Revisions to CJD 06-03, Effective 7-1-11 Directive Concerning Language Interpreters and Access to the Courts by Persons with Limited English Proficiency=1293
Appendix F6. Chief Justice Directive 06-03. Directive Concerning Language Interpreters and Access to the Courts by Persons with Limited English Proficiency=1295
Appendix G. Code of Professional Responsibility of the Official Interpreters of the United States Courts=1303
Appendix H1. Model Code of Professional Responsibility for Interpreters in the Judiciary=1305
Appendix H2. Rule 2.890 Professional Conduct for Interpreters 2012 California Rules of Court=1313
Appendix H3. NAJIT Code of Ethics and Professional Responsibilities=1315
Appendix H4. Model Code of Professional Conduct for Interpreters, Transliterators, and Translators=1317
Appendix I. Model Ethics Code for Judicial Employees=1321
Appendix J. Directory of Translating and Interpreting Professional Organizations, Certifying Bodies, and Federal and State Administrative and Testing Programs=1325
Appendix K. Declaration of Roseann Dueñas González, Avena and Other Mexican Nationals(Mexico v. United States of America)=1331
Appendix L1. Model General Jurisdiction Court Language Access Plan=1341
Appendix L2. Model Limited Jurisdiction Court Language Access Plan=1347
Appendix L3. Model Team Interpreting Policy=1353
Appendix L4. Model Request for Case Preparation Materials in an Interpreted Case=1355
Bibliography=1357
Cases Cited=1487
Index of Cases Cited=1495
Index of Names=1499
Index of Subjects=1507
About the Authors and Consultants=1531
Table 1.1. States with over 50% Asian Population Growth 2000-2010=30
Table 1.2. The 20 Most Commonly Used Languages in the U.S. in 2008=31
Table 1.3. Seven States with Top Languages Spoken by Other-than-Spanish-Speaking ELL Students=34
Table 1.4. Federal Court Interpreting Events in Fiscal Year 2010=35
Table 2.1. Transcription/Translation of Trial Court Hearing in 1998 for Appellate Review in Pagoada v. Kentucky(2001)=50
Table 2.2. Excerpt 1 from Transcription/Translation of Trial Court Hearing in 2004 for Appellate Review in Alfonzo v. Florida(2007)=54
Table 2.3. Excerpt 2 from Transcription/Translation of Trial Court Hearing in 2004 for Appellate Review in Alfonzo v. Florida(2007)=56
Table 2.4. Transcription/Translation of Excerpt from Trial Court Hearing in 2005 for Appellate Review in Diaz v. Indiana(2010)=59
Table 3.1. Educational Interpreting Settings=89
Table 9.1. Timeline of Jurisdictions Joining the Consortium for Language Access in the Courts=235
Table 9.2. Qualified Interpreter Certification Levels and Rate of Pay in the State of Alabama=238
Table 21.1. Model Voir Dire to Determine Need for Interpreter=538
Table 21.2. Model Voir Dire to Determine Interpreter Competency=558
Table 25.1. Federal Interpreting Fees=679
Table 25.2. 1987 Court Interpreter Salaries and Per Diem Rates=681
Table 26.1. Selected Parts of Speech=694
Table 26.2. Brief Overview of Interagency Language Roundtable(ILR) Speaking Skill Levels=721
Table 29.1. Frequency Count of Courtroom Register Lexical Items : A Sample=763
Table 39.1. Erroneous Miranda Rights Delivery Rendered by an Interpreter Using Consecutive Interpretation=959
Table 40.1. Comparison of Correct Transcription/Translation of Misstatement of Miranda Rights with "Cleaned-up Version" Provided by Untrained Police Personnel=970
Table 40.2. Defective Police Transcription/Translation of Custodial Interrogation with Misattribution of Speakers' Utterances in the Transcription Phase and Subsequent Erroneous Translation=971
Table 40.3. Corrected Version of Transcription and Translation=973
Table 40.4. Original Defective Transcription/Translation of Tape 2 in Arizona v. J. L.(2006) Submitted into Evidence by Prosecution=975
Table 40.5. Corrected Transcription/Translation in Arizona v. J. L.(2006)=975
Table 40.6. Excerpt from an FTT Document Prepared by an FTTS=982
Table 40.7. Excerpt from an Actual FTT Transcript=983
Table 40.8. Excerpt from an FTT in a Case Involving a Putative Interpreter=985
Table 40.9. Marking Discoursal Elements=1018
Table 40.10. Overlapping Dialogue=1018
Table 40.11. Excerpt from a Review of an Erroneous FTT with Corrected Transcription/Translation=1030
Table 40.12. Translation of a Dual Meaning SL Utterance=1031
Table 40.13. A Model Transcription/Translation=1036
Table 46.1. Written Examination Technical and Subsection Information : 1980-1999=1163
Table 46.2. Written Examination Technical and Subsection Information : 2001-2008=1163
Table 46.3. Overview of Federal Court Interpreter Oral Examination=1168
Table 46.4. Pass Rates for the Federal Court Interpreter Certification Examination : 1980- 1999(González, 1999)=1170
Table 46.5. Pass Rates for the Federal Court Interpreter Certification Examination : 2001-2009=1172
Table 47.1. Interpreter/Translator Certification by Language in the U.S.=1182
Table 47.2. Sections of the Consortium Written Examination=1185
Table 47.3. Consortium Standard Model Oral Performance Test Format=1187
Table 47.4. Consortium Languages for which Court Interpreter Certification Tests are Available=1189
Table 47.5. Consortium Pass Rates (at 70%) by State and Training=1190
Table 47.6. New York Oral Performance Test Format=1193
Table 47.7. Sections of the NJITCE Written Examination=1195
Table 47.8. NJITCE Oral Performance Test Format=1195
Table 47.9. Sections of the Navajo Written Examination of English Proficiency=1197
Table 47.10. Navajo Oral Performance Test Format=1198
Table 47.11. California Court Interpreter Certification Oral Performance Examination(pre-2010)=1199
Table 47.12. Court Interpreter Certificate of Proficiency=1201
Table 47.13. NCI Municipal Court Interpreter Oral Assessment=1202
Figure 1.1. Geographic Distribution of the Hispanic Population in the U.S., 2010=29
Figure 15.1. Hierarchy of State Courts.=340
Figure 15.2. Hierarchy of Federal Courts.=341
Figure 25.1. Model Minute Entry=687
Figure 26.1. Phrase Structure Tree : The defendant who turned state's evidence received a reduced sentence.=698
Figure 26.2. Box Diagram=698
Figure 26.3. Linguistic Difficulty of Decontextualized and Abstract Miranda Warning=709
Figure 26.4. Six Base Levels of ILR Language Proficiency Levels=720
Figure 27.1. Types of Meaning=725
Figure 32.1. Roles of the Source/Receptor and Receptor/Source Reverse When the Speaker Changes=794
Figure 32.2. Visual of Saussure's Linguistic Sign ; Top Half Denotes the Concept and the Bottom Half the External Form=794
Figure 32.3. External Form Is Arbitrary, as Illustrated by Synonyms and Homonyms=795
Figure 32.4. Early Language Comprehension Model That Ignores "Top-Down" and Psycho linguistic Processing=795
Figure 32.5. Speaking Circuit after Adding the Interpreter=799
Figure 32.6. Three-Dimensional Model of Saussure's Circuit Showing the Presence of Other Languages=799
Figure 32.7. Chain of Related Meanings for Spanish Term Llave=804
Figure 32.8. The Incremental Intervention Model=811
Figure 33.1. Rudimentary Interpreting Model=814
Figures 33.2-33.2.4. Examples of Modified Triangular Models That Depict the Interpreting Process=814
Figure 33.3. Model of Interpreting That Incorporates Sociocultural and Psycholingistic Factors=817
Figure 33.4. Early Interpreting Model Explicitly Incorporating Human Information Processing Theory=818
Figure 33.5. Interpreting Model Which Emphasizes Discrete Structural Components, Simultaneity of the Process, and Human Information Processing Theory=819
Figure 33.6. Interpreters' Knowledge and Experience in Analysis of Construction of Meaning=820
Figure 33.7. Loftus Classic Model of Human Information Processing=824
Figure 33.8. Flow Chart Of ACT Model [Fundamentals Authors' Conceptualization]=828
Figure 33.9. Procedural Knowledge Node From ACT Model [Fundamentals Authors' Conceptualization]=829
Figure 33.10. Simultaneous Human Information Processing(SHIP) Model=833
Figure 33.11. Cross-Section of SHIP's Cognitive Hierarchy=834
Figure 34.1. Depiction of Simultaneous Interpretation : Graphic Depiction of Time Lag between SL and TL Utterances=856
Figure 34.2. Normal Décalage and Order of Units : Depiction of Time Lag between Sl Utterance and Tl Utterance of Each Unit of Thought=863
Figure 34.3. Fluctuating Décalage : Illustration of Variation in Lag between Speaker and Interpreter, as Dictated by Length of TL Utterance=863
Figure 34.4. Prediction : The Interpreter Anticipates The Word "Role"=864
Figure 34.5. Split Units of Meaning : Change in Distribution of Units of Meaning, as Dictated by Syntax and Style=865
Figure 35.1. Sample Notetaking I=880
Figure 35.2. Sample Notetaking II=881
Figure 35.3. Sample Notetaking III=883
Figure 35.4. Use of Abbreviation for Eyewitness Description=885
Figure 35.5. Graphic Depiction of Eyewitness Description=886
Figure 36.1. Example of Sight Translation Document=900
Figure 38.1. Typical Configuration of Courtroom at Trial=927
Figure 38.2. Position of Interpreter during Arraignment=928
Figure 38.3. Placement of Interpreter at Counsel Table=929
Figure 38.4. Position of Interpreter during Custody Arraignment=930
Figure 38.5. Placement of Interpreter in the Witness Box=932
Figure 42.1. Typical Configuration of a High Tech Courtroom at Trial=1060