PrefaceAcknowledgementsAbout the AuthorInternational Treaties and International DocumentsSection IChapter 1 Introduction to International Law1.1 International Law1.2 The Resources of the Deep Seabed1.3 Petroleum Deposits on the Continental Shelf1.4 Energy Activities Under International Law1.4.1 The Impact of Privatisation1.5 The Influence of Science on Environmental Regulation in the Energy Sector1.5.1 Definition of Pollution1.5.2 Setting Environmental Standards1.5.3 Scientific Assessment1.5.4 The Technical Options1.5.5 Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Cost (BATNEEC)1.5.6 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)1.5.7 Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Life Cycle Assessment1.6 International Policy and Regulatory Bodies1.7 Energy Activities Within the United Nations1.7.1 The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)1.7.2 The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)1.7.3 The International Energy Authority (IEA)1.7.4 The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)1.8 The International Scope of Standard Setting1.9 ISO, European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), and Sector Standards1.9.1 The European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)1.10 Corporate Social Responsibility and Multinationals1.11 Environmental Regulation of International Corporations1.11.1 National and Regional Regulations1.12 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)1.12.1 Measuring Stability1.13 Developments on the International CCS Scene1.13.1 The 2009 London Protocol Amendment1.13.2 The OSPAR Convention1.14 How Do You Develop a CCS Regulatory Framework?1.15 Policy Incentives Essential to Deploy CCSNotesChapter 2 Regulation, Energy Resources, and the Environment2.1 Regulatory Design and Economics2.2 Regulatory Development2.3 Market Mechanisms2.3.1 Types of Economic Instruments2.4 The Economic Argument2.5 An Overview of Two Market Mechanisms That Have Particular Relevance to the Energy Sector2.5.1 Taxes/Charges2.5.2 National Taxes2.5.3 International Carbon Taxes2.6 Emission InventoriesNotesChapter 3 International Law and State Sovereignty3.1 Energy, International, and Environmental Laws3.2 State Sovereignty Over Its Natural Resources3.3 State Rights Over Mineral Resources and Common Space3.4 The 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf3.5 The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 19823.6 Protection of the Marine Environment3.6.1 Article3.7 Oil Pollution3.7.1 State Jurisdiction Over Coastal State Adjacent Seas3.8 Standard Setting Within International Treaties and Their Protocols3.9 The Depletion of the Ozone Layer3.10 The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer3.11 Climate Change3.11.1 Framework Convention on Climate Change, 19923.11.2 The Kyoto Protocol 19973.11.2.1 Use of the Flexible Mechanisms Under the Kyoto Protocol3.11.3 The Paris Agreement 20153.11.4 The Glasgow Climate PactNotesChapter 4 Trade, Competition, and the Environment4.1 International Competition Law and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade4.2 Intellectual Property Rights and Environmental Technology4.2.1 Transfer of Environmental Technology and Corporate Social Responsibility4.2.2 Theory, Intellectual Property Rights, and Technology Transfer4.3 The Management of Risk in Energy Infrastructure4.3.1 Bilateral and Multilateral Investment Agreements4.3.2 Bilateral Investment Treaties4.4 The Energy Charter Treaty4.4.1 Investment Protection Under the Energy Charter Treaty4.4.2 Transit Under the Energy Charter Treaty4.4.3 Dispute Resolution4.5 Case Studies4.6 Model Agreements4.6.1 Structuring Investment Protection4.6.2 Agreement Reached at COP26NotesChapter 5 Climate Change and the Energy Sector5.1 Climate Change and COP265.1.1 Why Are NDCs Important and How Are They Enforced?5.2 COP26 Outcomes5.2.1 The Glasgow Climate Pact5.2.2 The Paris Rulebook Finalised5.2.2.1 Article 6 Carbon Markets5.2.2.2 Article 13 Transparency5.3 COP26 and the Energy Sector5.3.1 What Net Zero Means for the Energy Transition5.4 Is There a Role for Coal?5.4.1 Carbon Capture5.4.2 The Global Coal to Clean Power Transition Statement5.5 The New Emission Pledges and Technology Innovation5.5.1 Innovation and Intellectual Property5.5.2 Innovation and Investment5.5.3 The Glasgow Financial Alliance (GFANZ)5.5.3.1 Governments and Climate Finance5.6 Legal Risk and Climate Change5.6.1 Policy Pressure5.7 The Rise of Litigation Risk5.8 Shareholder Involvement5.9 Legal Issues in Climate Change Litigation5.9.1 Justiciability5.9.2 Sources of Climate Obligations5.10 Attribution Science5.11 Climate Change and Human Rights5.11.1 Climate Change as a Human Rights IssueNotesSection IIChapter 6 International Law on Oil and Gas6.1 Licensing for Onshore Oil and Gas Exploration and Exploitation6.2 The Licence Regime6.3 The Concession Regime6.4 Case Study of the Concession Regime in Brazil6.5 Production-Sharing Agreements6.6 Case Study of Production Sharing in Russia6.7 Service Contracts6.8 Case Study of a Service Contract in Iran6.9 The Regulation of Offshore Installations Under International Law6.10 Ships and Oil Rigs in International Law6.11 Oil Rigs Under the Law of the Sea Convention, 19826.12 Jurisdiction of States in Relation to Offshore Installations6.12.1 A State’s Right to Construct Offshore Installations6.12.1.1 Internal Waters6.12.1.2 In the Territorial Sea6.12.1.3 The Exclusive Economic Zone6.12.1.4 The Continental Shelf6.12.1.5 On the High Seas6.12.1.6 The International Deep Seabed Area6.13 State Control and Jurisdiction Over Oil Rigs6.14 Criminal Jurisdiction6.15 Civil Jurisdiction6.16 Pollution Control and Environmental Issues6.17 Definition of Marine Pollution6.18 Civil Liability for Environmental Harm Caused by Oil Pollution6.19 Three Cases Brought Under the CLC6.19.1 The Amoco Cadiz Case6.19.2 The Sea Empress Case6.19.3 The Braer Case6.20 Decommissioning6.20.1 The IMO Guidelines6.20.2 The OSPAR Decision 98/36.20.3 The 1972 London Dumping Convention6.21 Update6.21.1 Gaps in the Regulatory Framework for the Environmental Safety of Offshore Drilling ActivitiesNotesChapter 7 International Regulation of the Nuclear Industry7.1 Nuclear Energy and the Environment7.2 The Emergence of Environmental Concerns7.3 The International Regulation of Nuclear Energy7.4 The IAEA and the Regulation of Nuclear Power7.5 OECD Nuclear Energy Agency7.6 Control of Nuclear Risk7.6.1 International Obligations7.7 Radiation Protection Standards7.8 State Responsibility for Nuclear Damage and Environmental Harm7.9 The Transportation of Radioactive Materials7.10 The IAEA Regulations7.11 The Civil Liability Conventions7.11.1 The Paris Convention on Third-Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 19607.11.2 The Vienna IAEA Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 19637.11.3 The Brussels Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 19717.11.4 The General Scheme7.11.5 Claims Under the Convention7.12 Assessment of the Nuclear Conventions7.13 Developments Since Chernobyl7.14 Nuclear Waste7.15 EURATOM and the European Dimension7.16 Nuclear Installations in the United Kingdom7.16.1 Radioactive Waste7.16.2 Transport of Radioactive Substances7.17 Decommissioning of Nuclear Installations in the European Union7.18 Decommissioning in the United Kingdom7.19 COP26 a Pivotal Point for Nuclear EnergyNotesChapter 8 International Regulation of Renewable Energy Sources8.1 Introduction8.2 Development Goals8.3 Challenges for International Renewable Energy Law8.4 IRENA and Its Power to Influence8.5 IRENA and IEA in the Institutional Landscape of Renewable Energy8.5.1 IRENA and IEA?Competition or Collaboration?8.5.2 Membership8.5.3 IRENA and IEA: A Case of Overlapping Scope8.5.4 Managing the Overlap8.5.5 IRENA, IEA, and the SE4All Initiative8.6 Financing Renewable Energy8.6.1 Sources of Capital8.6.2 The IRENA Report8.6.2.1 Public Investment8.6.2.2 Institutional Capital for Renewables8.6.2.3 Green Bonds8.7 Legal Aspects of Technology Transfer8.7.1 The Role of Intellectual Property Law and Policy8.8 Renewable Energy and Human Rights8.8.1 Clean Energy Supply ChainNotesSection IIIChapter 9 Energy Law in the United States9.1 Federal Regulatory Bodies9.2 Energy Regulation by the States9.2.1 Interrelationship Between Federal and State Policy and Regulations9.3 Constitutional Principles and Regulatory Jurisdiction9.4 Regulation for the Different Energy Sectors9.5 State Regulation of Oil and Gas9.5.1 Federal Regulation9.5.2 Federal Public Land9.6 Offshore Oil and Gas9.7 Environmental Concerns9.7.1 Areas for Concern9.8 Case Studies9.9 Case Study of the BP Oil Spill9.10 Coal9.10.1 A Regulatory Overview9.10.2 Health and Safety in Mines9.10.3 Land Reclamation9.10.4 Issues of Clean Air9.10.5 Clean Coal Initiatives9.11 Regulation of the Electricity Sector9.11.1 The Current Situation9.12 Nuclear Power in the United States9.12.1 Case Study of Three Mile Island Disaster9.12.2 Reforms9.13 Hydropower and Renewable Sources9.14 Update9.14.1 Developments in Legislation and Regulation9.14.2 Judicial Decisions Court Judgements and Public EnquiriesNotesChapter 10 Energy Law in the European Union10.1 An Energy Policy for Europe10.2 The Historical Development of European Energy Law10.3 Scope of the ECSC Treaty10.4 Inconsistencies Between the Treaties10.5 The Objectives of the ECSC Treaty10.6 The European Atomic Energy Community Treaty10.7 The European Energy Policy10.7.1 European Energy Policy and the Internal Energy Market10.8 Investment Planning10.9 Non-Discrimination and the Licensing of Hydrocarbons10.10 The Liberalising of the Electricity and Gas Markets10.11 The European Energy Charter Treaty10.12 An Energy Union10.13 Environmental Aspects10.14 The Constitutional Basis of European Environmental Legislation10.15 Types of European Environmental Legislation10.16 Directives With Particular Relevance to the Energy Sector10.16.1 The Environmental Assessment Directive10.16.2 The Environmental Impact Assessment Directive and Direct Effect10.16.3 Procedures for an Environmental Impact Assessment10.16.4 Strategic Developments10.16.5 The Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC)10.17 The Protection of Habitats and Species10.17.1 The Habitats Directive10.17.2 European Marine Sites10.18 European Legislation Covering Industrial Activity in the Energy Sector10.18.1 Hydrocarbon-Based Motor Fuels10.18.2 The Storage and Distribution of Petrol10.18.3 Emissions From Large Combustion Plants10.19 Community Action: Energy Tax and Industry10.20 Enforcing European Environmental Law10.21 The Interrelationship Between the Third Energy Package and the Climate Change Package10.21.1 The Policy Context10.22 The Third Energy Package10.23 The EU Climate Change and Renewable Energy Package10.23.1 The New EU ETS10.23.2 The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Decision10.23.3 The Renewable Energy Directive10.23.4 The Carbon Capture and Storage Directive (CCS)10.23.5 The Biofuels Directive10.23.6 The Emissions Standards Regulation10.24 Looking Forward Under the European Climate Change RegimeNotesChapter 11 Energy Law in the United Kingdom11.1 Energy Policy11.1.1 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)11.1.2 Introducing Mandatory Social Price Support11.1.3 Fairness of Energy Markets11.2 The Primary Energy Supply11.3 Infrastructure11.4 Energy Users11.5 The Interrelationship Between Environmental and Energy Policies11.5.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions11.5.2 Other Greenhouse Gas Emissions11.5.3 Sulphur Emissions11.5.4 Renewables11.5.5 Combined Heat and Power11.5.6 Localised Impacts11.6 UK Regulatory Bodies11.6.1 Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)11.6.2 Department for Business11.6.3 The Department for Business Innovation and Skills11.6.4 The Department of Energy and Climate Change11.6.5 Parliamentary Select Committees11.6.6 The Environment Agency11.6.6.1 Background11.6.6.2 Environmental Surveillance by the Agency11.6.7 Local Authorities11.6.7.1 Town and Country Planning11.6.7.2 Air Pollution11.6.7.3 Contaminated Land11.6.7.4 Noise Control11.6.8 The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA)11.6.9 The Office of the Gas and Electricity Markets (OFGEM)11.7 Regulations for the Different Energy Sectors11.7.1 Oil and Gas11.7.1.1 General Regulatory Framework11.7.1.2 Ownership of Petroleum11.7.1.3 The Legal Basis of Licensing11.7.1.4 Application of Criminal Law to the UK Continental Shelf11.7.1.5 Application of the Civil Law to the UK Continental Shelf11.7.2 The EC Hydrocarbons Directive11.7.3 Government Policy on Minerals11.7.4 Pollution Control11.7.4.1 The IPPC Directive and Offshore Installations11.7.4.2 The Environmental Assessment Directive11.7.4.3 Decommissioning11.8 Decommissioning and Disposal11.8.1 The OSPAR Commission11.8.2 Disposal on Land11.8.3 Post-Decommissioning Surveys and Monitoring11.8.4 Residual Liability11.9 Onshore Oil and Gas11.9.1 The Licensing System11.9.1.1 Coal-Bed Methane Gas (CBM)11.9.2 Planning Controls11.9.2.1 The Planning System11.9.2.2 Planning Conditions11.9.2.3 Planning Agreements and Obligations11.9.2.4 Appeals11.9.2.5 The Scope of Public Involvement11.9.2.6 Access to Environmental Information11.9.2.7 The European Directive11.9.2.8 The Environmental Information Regulations, 199211.9.2.9 Environmental Protest11.9.3 Vulnerable Sites11.9.3.1 Protection for Designated Sites11.9.3.2 The Coastal Zone11.9.3.3 Landward-Marine Areas11.10 Environmental Management Systems11.11 The Gas Supply Industry11.11.1 Regulation of the Gas Supply Industry11.11.1.1 Duties11.11.1.2 The Duty to Secure Competition11.11.2 The Licensing Regime for the Gas Supply Industry11.11.2.1 Types of Licence11.11.2.2 The Network Code11.11.3 The Competitive Market for Gas11.11.3.1 Competition Policy11.12 Electricity Supply Industry11.12.1 The Structure of the Industry11.12.1.1 The Participants11.12.2 The Market Structure11.12.2.1 England and Wales11.12.2.2 Scotland11.12.2.3 Northern Ireland11.12.2.4 The Interconnectors11.12.2.5 Generation11.12.2.6 Transmission11.12.2.7 Distribution11.12.3 Regulation of the Industry11.12.3.1 The Statutory Structure11.12.4 Regulatory Bodies for the Electricity Supply Industry11.12.4.1 The Secretary of State11.12.4.2 The Secretary of State and the Director11.12.4.3 General Duties of the Secretary of State and the Director11.12.5 The Licensing Regime11.12.5.1 The Grant of Licences11.12.5.2 The Licence11.12.5.3 The Generation Licence11.12.5.4 The Transmission Licence11.12.5.5 Public Electricity Supply Licences11.12.5.6 Second-Tier Supply Licences11.12.5.7 Exemptions From Licensing11.12.5.8 Modification and Enforcement11.12.5.9 Revocation of a Licence11.12.6 The Powers and Duties of PESs11.12.7 Possible Distortions of the Market11.12.7.1 The Sale of Electricity to Consumers11.12.7.2 The Protection of Consumers11.12.8 Implementing the European Union’s Third Energy Package11.12.9 Consumer Protection11.12.10 OFGEM’s Role as the NRA for Great Britain11.12.11 Transmission and Distribution Networks11.12.12 Gas Infrastructure11.12.13 Licence-Exempt Undertakings and Access to Private Networks11.12.13.1 UK Energy Policy for the Future11.12.13.2 UpdateNotesChapter 12 Energy Law in India12.1 Legislative Framework12.2 Regulation of Electricity12.3 The Policy Framework12.4 Market Organisation12.4.1 Generation12.4.2 Transmission12.4.3 Distribution12.4.4 Sale of Electricity12.5 Renewable Energy Policy12.6 The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)12.7 Wind Energy12.8 Solar Energy12.9 Hydropower, Geothermal, and Wave Energies12.10 Waste to Energy12.11 Biofuels12.12 Carbon Capture and Storage12.13 Policy and the Climate Change Agenda12.14 Nuclear Energy12.15 UpdateNotesChapter 13 Energy Law in Australia13.1 Introduction13.1.1 Energy Resources13.1.2 Energy Production13.1.3 Energy Policy13.2 Industry Structure of the Electricity Market13.2.1 The Regulators13.2.2 Commonwealth and State Relations13.2.2.1 The Tasmanian Dam Case13.3 Energy Sectors13.3.1 Uranium Mining13.3.1.1 New South Wales13.3.1.2 Northern Territory13.3.1.3 South Australia13.3.1.4 Victoria13.3.1.5 Western Australia13.4 Carbon Capture and Storage13.5 Future Developments13.5.1 Long-Term Liability Issues13.6 Managing the Transition to Renewable EnergyNotesChapter 14 Energy Law in China14.1 Evolution of Chinese Government Policy in Respect of the Energy Sector14.2 Framework of Energy Law in China14.3 Renewable Energy14.3.1 Recent Developments in the Renewables SectorNotesConclusionsBibliographyIndex