Title page
Content
Introduction 10
Chapter 1. Informal employment: The global picture 14
1.1. Size and composition of the informal economy 14
Informal employment is everywhere but predominates in the Global South 14
While informal employment in the informal sector predominates in the Global South, informality in formal enterprises represents a sizable proportion... 17
1.2. Who are the workers in the informal economy and which groups are the most at risk of informality? 18
Informality and status in employment 18
Exposure of workers in non-standard forms of employment to informality 20
Informality of enterprises and informality within enterprises 22
Sectoral dimension of informality 24
Informality and the urban-rural divide 27
Education and informality 29
Informality and occupational profiles 32
Informality over the life course 34
1.3. Working conditions and contextual vulnerabilities 36
Number of hours of work and informality 36
Wages and informality 40
Place of work and informality in low- and middle-income countries 41
Contextual vulnerabilities and opportunities: the household dimension 42
1.4. Long-term trends and during the COVID-19 pandemic 43
Long-term trends in informal and formal employment 43
Trends during the COVID-19 pandemic 44
Chapter 2. Informal employment in regions 48
2.1. Size and composition of the informal economy 48
Size of informal employment in regions and across regions 48
Composition of informal employment in regions 51
2.2. Who are the workers in the informal economy and which groups are the most at risk of informality? 51
Informality and status in employment in regions 51
Exposure to informality of workers in non-standard forms of employment in regions 54
Informality of enterprises and informality within enterprises in regions 56
Sectoral dimension of informality in regions 58
Informality and the urban-rural divide in regions 62
Education and informality in regions 64
Informality and occupational profiles in regions 67
Informality over the life course in regions 69
2.3. Working conditions 71
Number of hours of work and informality in regions 71
Wages and informality in regions 75
Place of work and informality in regions 76
Contextual vulnerabilities and opportunities: the household dimension in regions 78
Chapter 3. Profiles of informality in subregions 80
3.1. Africa 80
Size and composition of informal employment in Africa 80
Who are the workers in the informal economy in Africa and which groups are the most at risk of informality? 81
3.2. Americas 89
Size and composition of informal employment in the Americas 89
Who are the workers in the informal economy in the Americas and which groups are the most at risk of informality? 90
3.3. Asia and the Pacific 98
Size and composition of informal employment in Asia and the Pacific 98
Who are the workers in the informal economy in Asia and the Pacific and which groups are the most at risk of informality? 99
3.4. Europe and Central Asia 107
Size and composition of informal employment in Europe and Central Asia 107
Who are the workers in the informal economy in Europe and Central Asia and which groups are the most at risk of informality? 108
Annex 1. Classification of countries/territories by income group (per capita gross national income) 118
Annex 2. Classification of countries/territories by region 120
Annex 3. National sources: List of household surveys 122
Figure 1. Percentage of informal employment in total employment, 2019 14
Figure 2.Informalityand level of development 15
Figure 3. Percentage and composition of global informal employment, by sex and country income group, 2019 16
Figure 4. Composition of informal employment, by country-income group, status in employment and type of unit of production, 2019 17
Figure 5. Informal employment and status in employment, by country income group, 2019 19
Figure 6. Share and composition of informal wage employment, by type of work arrangement and country income group, 2019 21
Figure 7. Share and composition of informal employment, by enterprise size and country income group, 2019 22
Figure 8. Distribution of informal and formal employment, by enterprise size and country income group, 2019 22
Figure 9. Percentage of informal economic units and country income group, 2019 23
Figure 10. The sectoral dimension of informality, by country income group, 2019 25
Figure 11. The urban-rural divide and informality, by country income group, 2019 27
Figure 12. Percentage of informal employment, by highest level of education and differences between women and men, 2019 29
Figure 13. Educational profiles of workers in informal and formal employment, by country income group and sex, 2019 30
Figure 14. Informality and occupations, by sex and country income group, 2019 32
Figure 15. Informality age profiles by employment status: world and country income groups, 2019 34
Figure 16. Distribution of employment over the life cycle, by employment status and country income groups, 2019 35
Figure 17. Average number of actual3 hours of work per week among workers in formal and informal employment, by sex and country income group, 2019 36
Figure 18. Distribution of workers in formal and informal employment, by range of hours of work per week, sex and country income group, 2019 37
Figure 19. Distribution of workers in formal and informal employment, by range of hours of work, country income group and status in employment, 2019 38
Figure 20. Share of informal employment by range of hours of work and country income group, 2019 39
Figure 21. Comparison of average monthly wages: men and women in informal employment versus those in formal employment, 2019 40
Figure 22. Comparison of average monthly wages: women in formal and informal employment and men in informal employment versus men in formal employment, 2019 40
Figure 23. Percentage of informal employment, by place of work, sex and country income group (low- and middle-income countries, excluding China), 2019 41
Figure 24. Distribution of informal and formal employment, by place of work, sex and country income group (low- and middle-income countries, excluding China), 2019 42
Figure 25. Distribution of informal and formal employment, by type of household, sex and country income group, 2019 42
Figure 26. Annual growth rates of formal and informal employment, 2005-2022 43
Figure 27. Formalization or informalization of the labour market during the COVID-19 pandemic (selected countries and territories) 44
Figure 28. Distribution of global informal employment, by region and subregion, 2019 48
Figure 29. Percentage of informal employment, by sex and region, 2019 49
Figure 30. Share of informal employment among domestic workers and non-domestic workers, in the world and by region, 2019 50
Figure 31. Share of home-based workers in informal employment in low- and middle-income countries (excluding China), by region, 2019 50
Figure 32. Composition of informal employment, by region, status in employment and type of unit of production, 2019 51
Figure 33. Informal employment and status in employment, by region, 2019 52
Figure 34. Share and composition of informal wage employment, by type of work arrangement and region, 2019 54
Figure 35. Percentage of informal economic units, by region, 2019 56
Figure 36. Share and composition of informal employment, by enterprise size and region, 2019 57
Figure 37. Distribution of informal and formal employment, by enterprise size and region, 2019 57
Figure 38. Percentage of informal employment by detailed sector and sex, in the world and by region, 2019 59
Figure 39. Distribution of informal and formal employment, by region, detailed sector and sectoral gender segregation, 2019 60
Figure 40. The urban-rural divide and informality in regions, 2019 62
Figure 41. Percentage of informal employment, by highest level of education in regions, 2019 64
Figure 42. Educational profiles of workers in informal and formal employment, by region, 2019 65
Figure 43. Informality and occupations, by sex and region, 2019 67
Figure 44. Informality age profiles by employment status, in the world and by region, 2019 70
Figure 45. Distribution of employment over the life cycle, by employment status and region, 2019 70
Figure 46. Average number of actual hours of work per week among workers in formal and informal employment, by sex and region, 2019 71
Figure 47. Distribution of workers in formal and informal employment, by range of hours of work 73
Figure 48. Distribution of workers in formal and informal employment, by range of hours of work, status in employment and region, 2019 73
Figure 49. Share of informal employment by range of hours of work and region, 2019 74
Figure 50. Average monthly wages and average number of hours of work: ratio of informal to formal employees, by region, 2019 75
Figure 51. Average monthly wages and average number of hours of work: ratio of informal to formal employees, by sex and region, 2019 76
Figure 52. Percentage of informal employment, by place of work, sex and region (in low- and middle-income countries, excluding China), 2019 77
Figure 53. Distribution of informal and formal employment, by place of work, sex and region (in low- and middle-income countries, excluding China), 2019 77
Figure 54. Distribution of informal and formal employment, by type of households and sex in the world and by region, 2019 78
Figure 55. Percentage of informal employment in Africa, by sex and subregion, 2019 80
Figure 56. Informal employment and status in employment in Africa, by subregion, 2019 81
Figure 57. Percentage of informal economic units in Africa, by subregion, 2019 83
Figure 58. Share and composition of informal employment in Africa, by enterprise size and subregion, 2019 83
Figure 59. Distribution of informal and formal employment in Africa, by enterprise size and subregion, 2019 84
Figure 60. Distribution of informal and formal employment in Africa, by sector and subregion, 2019 85
Figure 61. Informality and the urban-rural divide in Africa, by subregion, 2019 86
Figure 62. Informality and education in Africa, by subregion, 2019 87
Figure 63. Percentage of informal employment in Africa, by age range and subregion, 2019 88
Figure 64. Percentage of informal employment in the Americas, by sex and subregion, 2019 89
Figure 65. Informal employment and status in employment in the Americas, by subregion, 2019 90
Figure 66. Percentage of informal economic units in the Americas, by subregion, 2019 92
Figure 67. Share and composition of informal employment in the Americas, by enterprise size and subregion, 2019 92
Figure 68 Distribution of informal and formal employment in the Americas, by enterprise size and subregion, 2019 93
Figure 69. Distribution of informal and formal employment in the Americas, by sector and subregion, 2019 94
Figure 70. Informality and the urban-rural divide in the Americas, by subregion, 2019 95
Figure 71. Informality and education in the Americas, by subregion, 2019 97
Figure 72. Percentage of informal employment in the Americas, by age range and subregion, 2019 97
Figure 73. Percentage of informal employment in Asia and the Pacific, by sex and subregion, 2019 98
Figure 74. Informal employment and status in employment in Asia and the Pacific, by subregion, 2019 99
Figure 75. Informal economic units in Asia and the Pacific, by subregion, 2019 101
Figure 76. Share and composition of informal employment in Asia and the Pacific, by enterprise size and subregion, 2019 101
Figure 77. Distribution of informal and formal employment in Asia and the Pacific, by enterprise size and subregion, 2019 102
Figure 78. Distribution of informal and formal employment in Asia and the Pacific, by sector and subregion, 2019 103
Figure 79. Informality and the urban-rural divide in Asia and the Pacific, by subregion, 2019 104
Figure 80. Informality and education in Asia and the Pacific, by subregion, 2019 105
Figure 81. Percentage of informal employment in Asia and the Pacific, by age range and subregion, 2019 106
Figure 82. Percentage of informal employment in Europe and Central Asia, by sex and subregion, 2019 107
Figure 83. Informal employment and status in employment in Europe and Central Asia, by subregion, 2019 109
Figure 84. Percentage of informal economic units in Europe and Central Asia, by subregion, 2019 110
Figure 85. Share and composition of informal employment in Europe and Central Asia, by enterprise size and subregion, 2019 111
Figure 86. Distribution of informal and formal employment in Europe and Central Asia, by enterprise size and subregion, 2019 111
Figure 87. Distribution of informal and formal employment in Europe and Central Asia, by sector and subregion, 2019 112
Figure 88. Informality and the urban-rural divide in Europe and Central Asia, by subregion, 2019 113
Figure 89. Informality and education in Europe and Central Asia, by subregion, 2019 115
Figure 90. Percentage of informal employment in Europe and Central Asia, by age range and subregion, 2019 116
Boxes
Box 1. The concept of the informal economy and statistical definitions of informal employment and informal sector 12
Box 2. Informality of enterprises by income group of countries 23
Box 3. Women are over-represented in occupations, sectors or places of work that are highly exposed to informality: Focus on domestic workers and home-based workers 50
Box 4. Informality of enterprises in regions 56