Title page
Contents
Preface 8
Acknowledgements 10
Acronyms and abbreviations 11
Executive summary 13
Section 1. Introduction 26
1.1. Why invest in the childcare sector 28
1.2. Scope and structure of the study 32
Section 2. Research design 35
2.1. Conceptual framework 37
2.2. Operationalizing the principles of AAQDW 40
2.3. Methodology and research steps 46
2.4. Study limitations 47
Section 3. Childcare sector across Asia and the Pacific: Key policy actors and national policies 49
3.1. Central and West Asia 54
3.2. South Asia 57
3.3. Southeast Asia 61
3.4. East Asia 65
3.5. The Pacific 68
Section 4. Accessibility 73
4.1. Intersectional profile of households 75
4.2. Profile of the children covered 80
4.3. Other factors 88
Section 5. Affordability 92
5.1. Public expenditure on early childhood care and development services 95
5.2. Challenges in accessing public funding 102
Section 6. Quality 107
6.1. Standards and frameworks on childcare infrastructure 109
6.2. Qualification and training of childcare workers 118
Section 7. Decent work conditions for childcare workers 126
7.1. Feminized composition of the childcare workforce 128
7.2. Inadequate wages, benefits and poor working conditions 130
7.3. Low organization, representation in social dialogue and voice 137
Section 8. Recommendations 140
8.1. Recommendations on accessibility 141
8.2. Recommendations on affordability 144
8.3. Recommendations on quality 145
8.4. Recommendations on decent work for childcare workers 146
Section 9. National case studies 150
9.1. Georgia 151
9.2. Indonesia 155
9.3. Lao People's Democratic Republic 159
9.4. Mongolia 162
9.5. Nepal 166
9.6. The Philippines 171
9.7. Sri Lanka 176
References 181
Annex 1. Sample topic guide adapted for various stakeholders 196
Annex 2. Childcare policy gap estimates 200
Annex 3. Maternity and paternity leave policies in economies in Asia and the Pacific 202
Annex 4. Official age of entry into pre-primaryand primary education 205
Table 1. 5R framework of the high road to care by the ILO 39
Table 2. Elements for good quality childcare 43
Table 3. Different types of service provision in the childcare sector across Asia and the Pacific 51
Table 4. Landscape of the childcare sector in economies in Central and West Asia 55
Table 5. Landscape of the childcare sector in economies in South Asia 59
Table 6. Landscape of the childcare sector in economies in Southeast Asia 63
Table 7. Landscape of the childcare sector in economies in East Asia 67
Table 8. Landscape of the childcare sector in economies in the Pacific 70
Table 9. Gross enrolment rates in pre-primary education (2005-2017) in selected low-income economies 80
Table 10. Economies in Asia and the Pacific with national childcare systems for 3-5-year-olds 81
Table 11. Economies in Asia and the Pacific with national childcare systems for 0-2 year-olds 83
Table 12. Types of childcare services available for informal economy workers' children under 3 years old 104
Table 13. Minimum certification and training requirements 119
FIGURE 1. Conceptual framework informing this research 38
FIGURE 2. Key international standards and guidelines on or relevant to the childcare sector 52
FIGURE 3. Economies with legislation on public, private, or employer-run childcare provision 53
FIGURE 4. The provision of childcare in Japan 66
FIGURE 5. Becoming a childcare worker in Japan 124
FIGURE 6. Comparing early childhood care and development workers and preprimary teachers as a percentage of primary teachers wages, latest year 132
Boxes
Box 1. Promising practice on Singapore's Early Childhood Development Agency (ECDA) 62
Box 2. Promising practice from Thailand on the intersection of income, geographical and language factors for childcare accessibility 78
Box 3. Promising practice from Singapore on promoting childcare accessibility 86
Box 4. Promising practice from Viet Nam on the inclusion of children with special needs 88
Box 5. Promising practice from India on affordable community childcare centres 97
Box 6. Promising practice from Singapore on fee subsidies for preschool education (both private and public) 99
Box 7. Promising practice from Bangladesh on regulations for childcare centres 110
Box 8. Promising practice on the holistic childcare centre accreditation framework in Singapore 113
Box 9. Promising practice on alternative models from the Kyrgyz Republic 114
Box 10. Promising practice on childcare sector regulation from the Republic of Korea 116
Box 11. Promising practice on guidelines for the development of national quality frameworks from the Pacific Islands 118
Box 12. Promising practice on training childcare workers from Viet Nam 123
Box 13. Promising practice on care providers from Palau 130
Box 14. Promising practice on care worker remuneration from New Zealand 134