Contents
Executive Summary 6
1. Introduction 10
2. Human Capital Costs 27
Ⅰ. Crash Data and Severity Estimation 27
Ⅱ. Property Damage, Insurance, and Legal Costs 39
Ⅲ. Miscellaneous Costs 48
Ⅳ. Police-Reported Versus Unreported Crash Costs 50
3. Congestion Impacts 55
4. Lost Quality-of-Life 118
5. Incidence 126
6. State Costs 149
7. Alcohol 152
Fatalities 152
Nonfatal Injuries 156
Underreported Alcohol 159
BAC Levels 161
Alcohol-Involved Crash Costs 165
Alcohol Crash Causation 169
8. Speeding 174
9. Distracted Driving 177
10. Motorcycle Crashes 182
11. Seat Belt Use 199
12. Crashes by Roadway Location 210
13. Other Special Interest Crash Scenarios 230
14. Source of Payment 241
Appendix A. Sensitivity Analysis, Value of a Statistical Life 247
Appendix B. Costs by Body Region 251
Appendix C. KABCO/MAIS Translators 254
Appendix D. KABCO Unit Costs 257
Appendix E. Estimating the Costs of Motor Vehicle Traffic Injuries in the United States From Healthcare Files 258
Supplement to Appendix E. Short-Term Follow-Up Cost Factors 272
Appendix F. Unit Costs and Standard Errors at Different Discount Rates 274
Appendix G. Definitions 293
Bibliography 294
Table 1-1. Summary of Total Economic Costs 16
Table 1-2. Summary of Unit Costs and Police-Reported and Unreported Crashes, 2010 Dollars 17
Table 1-3. Incidence Summary - 2010 Total Police-Reported and Unreported Injuries 18
Table 1-4. Summary of Unit Costs, Police-Reported Crashes, 2010 Dollars 19
Table 1-5. Summary of Unit Costs, Unreported Crashes, 2010 Dollars 19
Table 1-6. Summary of Total Economic Costs in Police-Reported Crashes, Millions of 2010 Dollars 20
Table 1-7. Summary of Total Economic Costs in Unreported Crashes, Millions of 2010 Dollars 20
Table 1-8. Summary of Total Comprehensive Costs, Reported and Unreported Crashes, Millions of 2010 Dollars 21
Table 1-9. Summary of Comprehensive Unit Costs, Reported and Unreported Crashes, 2010 Dollars 22
Table 1-10. Summary of Comprehensive Unit Costs, Police-Reported Crashes, 2010 Dollars 23
Table 1-11. Summary of Comprehensive Unit Costs, Unreported Crashes, 2010 Dollars 24
Table 1-12. Summary of Total Comprehensive Costs, Police-Reported Crashes, Millions of 2010 Dollars 24
Table 1-13. Summary of Total Comprehensive Costs, Unreported Crashes 25
Table 1-14. Economic and Societal Costs for Selected Crash Types 26
Table 2-1. 2008-2010 NASS/CDS-based crash costs per surviving victim at 3-percent discount rate by MAIS 30
Table 2-2. HCUP-based crash costs per surviving victim at 3-percent discount rate by MAIS; AIS-85 versus AIS-90 31
Table 2-3. 2008-2010 NASS/CDS-based crash costs per victim at 3-percent and 4-percent discount rates by MAI 32
Table 2-4. 2008-2010 NASS/CDS-based medical costs per surviving victim at a 3-percent discount rate, by body region and MAIS 33
Table 2-5. 2008-2010 NASS/CDS-based earnings loss per surviving victim at a 3-percent discount rate, by body region and MAIS 35
Table 2-6. 2008-2010 NASS/CDS-based household production per surviving victim at 3-percent discount rate, by body region and MAIS 37
Table 2-7. Policyholders in 2009 pooled, multi-insurer Insurance Services Office (ISO) data as a percentage of insured vehicles, and representativeness of loss ratios in ISO data 44
Table 2-8. Earned premiums, exposures, claims, and losses by auto insurance line and coverage in 2009 pooled, multi-insurer Insurance Services Office data 45
Table 2-9. Estimated people injured in crashes and compensated losses (2010 dollars) by injury severity and crash strata 47
Table 2-10. Property damage in crashes reported to insurers, 2009 47
Table 2-11. Vehicles per crash by police-reported crash severity 47
Table 2-12. Insurance administration and legal costs per person by MAIS severity 48
Table 2-13. Crashes by severity, portion involving roadside furniture damage, costs per crash with costs and cost per crash, Missouri, 2008 49
Table 2-14. Selected ancillary crash costs per person by MAIS 49
Table 2-15. Summary of Unit Costs, Police-Reported and Unreported Crashes, 2010, 3-Percent Discount Rate, 2010 Dollars 50
Table 2-16. Per Vehicle Property Damage in MDAC Survey 52
Table 2-17. Summary of Police-Reported and Unreported Emergency Services Unit Costs 53
Table 2-18. Summary of Unit Costs, Police-Reported Crashes, 3-percent discount Rate 54
Table 2-19. Summary of Unit Costs, Unreported Crashes, 3-percent discount Rate 54
Table 3-1. Annual Average Daily Traffic by Roadway Category 59
Table 3-2. Distribution of Daily Traffic and Crash Occurrences by Crash Severity 62
Table 3-3. Crash Exposure Adjusted AAHT by Roadway Class and Crash Severity 65
Table 3-4. Crash Duration Estimates 66
Table 3-5. 2006-2010 PA Statewide Crashes by Roadway Closure and Severity on Urban Interstate Expressways 70
Table 3-6. PA Crash Duration, Urban Interstate Expressways, 2006-2010, Full Roadway Closure 71
Table 3-7. Average Roadway Closure Times by Crash Severity and Roadway Type 72
Table 3-8. Average Roadway Closure Times by Crash Severity and Roadway Type, Adjusted for Response Lag 73
Table 3-9. Summary of Crash Duration Estimates 74
Table 3-10. Crash Duration by Roadway Type and Crash Severity 75
Table 3-11. Portion of Police-Reported Crashes Involving Lane Closure, PA Crashes 2006-2010 76
Table 3-12. Reduced Capacity Due to Freeway Crashes (Normal Capacity = 1.0) 77
Table 3-13. Probability Distribution of the Number of Lanes Closed Given Lane Closure, by Vehicle Involvement 78
Table 3-14. Crash Distribution Within Lane Categories, Urban Interstate/Expressway 78
Table 3-15. Distribution of Lane Blockage, Given at Least One Lane Blocked, Urban Interstate/Expressway 79
Table 3-16. Derivation of Average Vehicle Capacity Reduction, Crashes With at Least One Lane Closed 80
Table 3-17. Congestion Impacts of Rubbernecking in Open Lane Crashes and Opposite Directions (per Crash) 84
Table 3-18. Vehicle Delay Hours from Congestion During Crash Duration 85
Table 3-19. Queue Dispersal Travel Delay Summary, Impact per Fatal Crash by Functional Roadway Type 91
Table 3-20. Summary of Vehicle Delay Hours During Crash Duration and Queue Dispersal 92
Table 3-21. Vehicle Delay Hours by Crash Severity and Roadway Type, Average for All Crashes 95
Table 3-22. Emissions Costs Used in FMCSA Report 99
Table 3-23. Estimated Net Tailpipe Emissions/Crash by Facility Type, FMCSA Fatal Commercial Vehicle Crashes 99
Table 3-24. Estimated Value of Net Tailpipe Emissions/Crash, FMCSA Fatal Commercial Vehicle Crashes 100
Table 3-25. Estimated Net Tailpipe Emissions/Vehicle Hour by Facility Type, All Fatal Crashes 100
Table 3-26. Estimated Net Tailpipe Emissions/Crash by Facility Type, All Fatal Crashes 101
Table 3-27. (Omit) 102
Table 3-28. Estimated Upstream Emissions/Crash by Facility Type, Short Tons, All Fatal Crashes 102
Table 3-29. Tailpipe Emissions Costs 103
Table 3-30. Estimated Value of Net Emissions/Crash by Facility Type, All Fatal Crashes 104
Table 3-31. Estimated Value of Net Emissions/Crash by Facility Type, All Injury Crashes 104
Table 3-32. Estimated Value of Net Emissions/Crash by Facility Type, All PDO Crashes 105
Table 3-33. Net Increase in and Cost of Fuel Consumption, Fatal Crashes 106
Table 3-34. Net Increase in and Cost of Fuel Consumption, Injury Crashes 106
Table 3-35. Net Increase in and Cost of Fuel Consumption, PDO Crashes 107
Table 3-36. Average Value of Travel per Hour by Road Type 108
Table 3-37. Value of Travel Time/Crash, by Crash Severity and Roadway Type, All Crashes 108
Table 3-37a. Relative Incidence Weights Among Roadway Types 108
Table 3-38. Summary of Congestion Costs/Crash Due to Time Delay, Excess Fuel Burned, and Pollution Police-Reported Crashes 109
Table 3-39. Allocation of Congestion Costs Across Involved People in Fatal and Injury Crashes 110
Table 3-40. Final Congestion Cost/Severity Unit ($2010), Police-Reported Crashes 111
Table 3-41. Summary of Congestion Costs/Crash Due to Time Delay, Excess Fuel Burned, and Pollution Unreported Crashes 113
Table 3-42. Final Congestion Cost/Severity Unit ($2010), Unreported Crashes 114
Table 3-43. Average Congestion Costs for All Crashes 115
Table 3-44. Total Congestion Costs, 2010 115
Table 3-45. Demographic and Roadway Characteristics, Pennsylvania Versus United States, 2008 116
Table 4-1. QALY Values for Injured Survivors by Discount Rate and MAIS 120
Table 4-2. Comprehensive Unit Costs, Reported and Unreported Crashes 123
Table 4-3. Comprehensive Unit Costs, Police-Reported Crashes 124
Table 4-4. Comprehensive Unit Costs, Unreported Crashes 125
Table 5-1. Fatalities and Fatality Rates, 1949-2011 127
Table 5-2. Translator for Non-CDS Cases, Nonoccupants and Motorcyclists 129
Table 5-3. Motor Vehicle Police-Reported Traffic Crashes by State 132
Table 5-4. Estimated Police-Reported Non-Fatal Injury Profile, 2010 133
Table 5-5. State PDO Reporting Thresholds 137
Table 5-6. Sample Data of Various Jurisdictions Accident Reporting Rates 138
Table 5-7. Estimated Injured People and Drivers of PDOs From MDAC Study, by Police Reporting Status 139
Table 5-8. 2010 Injury Estimates 141
Table 5-9. Summary of Motor Vehicle Injuries Compiled From Various Sources 143
Table 5-10. Nonfatal Injury Summary by Police Report Status 144
Table 5-11. PDO Vehicle Summary 146
Table 5-12. MDAC PDO Reporting Status 146
Table 5-13. PDO Vehicle Summary Adjusted to Remove MAIS 0 Cases 147
Table 5-14. 2010 Incidence Summary 148
Table 6-1. Estimated 2010 Economic Costs Due to Motor Vehicle Crashes by State 150
Table 7-1. Alcohol-Involved and Intoxicated Traffic Fatalities, Highest BAC in CRASH 153
Table 7-2. Alcohol-Involved and Intoxicated Traffic Fatalities, Highest Driver BAC 154
Table 7-3. Pedestrian and Bicyclist Alcohol Use Related Traffic Fatalities 155
Table 7-4. Alcohol Involvement Identified in Police-Reported Crashes 158
Table 7-5. Total Alcohol Involvement Adjusted for Unreported Cases 161
Table 7-6. Incidence Stratified by Highest Driver or Nonoccupant BAC and Injury Severity 163
Table 7-7. Average Unit Costs, BAC〉=.05 injuries, and BAC〉 .00 Fatalities 166
Table 7-8. Average Unit Costs, BAC=.00-0.04 injuries, and BAC = .00 Fatalities 166
Table 7-9. Average Unit Costs, All Positive BAC Injuries and Fatalities 167
Table 7-10. Summary of Total Economic Costs by BAC Level 167
Table 7-11. Percent of Economic Injury Costs by Alcohol Involvement Rate 168
Table 7-12. Total Comprehensive Costs by BAC Level 168
Table 7-13. Percent of Comprehensive Injury Costs by Alcohol Involvement Rate 169
Table 7-14. Injuries Attributable to Alcohol Use by BAC Level 170
Table 7-15. Economic Crash Costs Attributable to Alcohol Use by BAC Level 172
Table 7-16. Percent of Total Economic Costs Attributable to Alcohol 172
Table 7-17. Comprehensive Crash costs Attributable to Alcohol Use by BAC Level 173
Table 7-18. Percent of Total Comprehensive Costs Attributable to Alcohol 173
Table 8-1. Economic Costs of Speed Related Crashes 176
Table 8-2. Comprehensive Costs of Speed Related Crashes 176
Table 9-1. Economic Cost of Identified Distracted Driving Crashes 180
Table 9-2. Comprehensive Cost of Identified Distracted Driving Crashes 181
Table 10-1. Motorcyclist Fatalities, Injuries, and Casualty Rates, 1975-2011 185
Table 10-2. Motorcycle Riders, Incidence Summary, 2010 186
Table 10-3. Motorcycle Rider Unit Costs and Total Costs 187
Table 10-4. Helmeted Motorcycle Injured Riders, Incidence Summary, 2010 189
Table 10-5. Unhelmeted Motorcycle Injured Riders, Incidence Summary, 2010 189
Table 10-6. Helmeted Motorcycle Rider Unit Costs and Total Costs 190
Table 10-7. Unhelmeted Motorcycle Rider Unit Costs and Total Costs 190
Table 10-8. Economic Benefits of Helmet Use, 1975-2010 191
Table 10-9. Economic Benefits Forgone by Helmet Nonuse 192
Table 10-10. Comprehensive Societal Benefits of Helmet Use, 1975-2010 195
Table 10-11. Comprehensive Benefits Forgone by Helmet Nonuse 197
Table 11-1. Effectiveness of Seat Belts against Fatalities and Serious Injuries 199
Table 11-2. Achieved and Potential Impact of Seat belt Use on Fatalities and Serious Injuries, 1975-2010 202
Table 11-3. Impact of Historical Seat belt Use on Economic Costs 204
Table 11-4. Impact of Potential Seat belt Use on Economic Costs 205
Table 11-5. Comprehensive Benefits From Seat Belt Use 208
Table 11-6. Impact of Potential Seat Belt Use on Societal Harm 209
Table 12-1. Traffic Fatalities with Known Urban/Rural Designation 211
Table 12-2. Portion of Injuries Occurring in Rural Jurisdictions, by Injury Severity 213
Table 12-3. Rural Proportions Relative to Fatal Proportions by Injury Severity 213
Table 12-4. Derivation of Estimated Urban/Rural Proportions of Crashes by Injury Severity 215
Table 12-5. Reverse Translator for MAIS to KABCO Application to Injured Survivors 216
Table 12-6. KABCO Incidence Counts from MAIS Injured Survivors 216
Table 12-7. Rural KABCO Incidence Counts from MAIS Injured Survivors 216
Table 12-8. Derivation of Rural Incidence Percentage for MAIS 0 and PDO 217
Table 12-9. Urban/Rural Incidence Summary 218
Table 12-10. Urban/Rural Economic Cost Summary 219
Table 12-11. Urban/Rural Comprehensive Cost Summary 219
Table 12-12. NMVCCS Cases, Percentages Urban Versus Rural by Roadway Type 221
Table 12-13. Proportions of Fatalities, Injuries and PDOV by Roadway Designation in Rural Crashes 222
Table 12-14. Proportions of Fatalities, Injuries and PDOV by Roadway Designation in Urban Crashes 222
Table 12-15. Estimated Economic Cost of Crashes in Rural Areas by Roadway Designation 223
Table 12-16. Estimated Economic Cost of Crashes in Urban Areas by Roadway Designation 224
Table 12-17. Estimated Comprehensive Cost of Crashes in Rural Areas by Roadway Designation 224
Table 12-18. Estimated Comprehensive Cost of Crashes in Urban Areas by Roadway Designation 225
Table 13-1. KABCO/MAIS Translator for CDS Equivalent Cases 233
Table 13-2. KABCO/MAIS Translator for Non-CDS Equivalent Cases, Unbelted 233
Table 13-3. KABCO/MAIS Translator for Non-CDS Equivalent Cases, Belted 234
Table 13-4. KABCO/MAIS Translator for Non-CDS Equivalent Cases, Unknown Belt Use 234
Table 13-5. KABCO/MAIS Translator for Nonoccupants and Motorcyclists 235
Table 13-6. Economic Costs of Intersection Crashes 235
Table 13-7. Comprehensive Costs of Intersection Crashes 235
Table 13-8. Economic Costs of Interstate Highway Crashes 236
Table 13-9. Comprehensive Costs of Interstate Highway Crashes 236
Table 13-10/Table 10. Economic Costs of Single-Vehicle Crashes 236
Table 13-11. Comprehensive Costs of Single-Vehicle Crashes 237
Table 13-12. Economic Costs of Roadway Departure Crashes 237
Table 13-13. Comprehensive Costs of Roadway Departure Crashes 237
Table 13-14. Economic Costs of Pedestrian/Bicyclist Crashes 238
Table 13-15. Comprehensive Costs of Pedestrian/Bicyclist Crashes 238
Table 13-16. Economic Cost of Pedestrian Crashes 238
Table 13-17. Comprehensive Cost of Pedestrian Crashes 239
Table 13-18. Economic Cost of Bicyclist Crashes 240
Table 13-19. Comprehensive Cost of Bicyclist Crashes 240
Table 14-1. Primary payer for medical costs of hospital-admitted road crash injuries, by age, United States, as per 2007 HCUP-NIS 243
Table 14-2. Life insurance coverage and policy amounts, United States, 2010 244
Table 14-3. Distribution of Source of Payment by Cost Category 244
Table 14-4. Source of Payment by Cost Category, 2010 Motor Vehicle Crash Costs 245
Figure 1-A. Components of Total Economic Costs 17
Figure 1-B. Source of Payment for Motor Vehicle Crash Costs 18
Figure 1-C. Percentage of Total Costs From Police-Reported Crashes 21
Figure 1-D. Components of Comprehensive Costs 23
Figure 3-A. % Daily Traffic, Weekday 60
Figure 3-B. % Daily Traffic, Weekend 60
Figure 3-C. Weekday Crash Frequencies Versus Congestion 63
Figure 3-D. Weekend Crash Frequencies Versus Congestion 64
Figure 3-E/Figure 3-F. Probability Of Diversion 88
Figure 3-F/Figure 3-G. Idling Fuel Consumption With Respect to Idling Time 96
Figure 4-A. Relative Distribution of Comprehensive Costs 124
Figure 5-A. Fatalities and Fatality Rate, by Year 128
Figure 5-B. People Injured and Injury Rate, by Year 134
Figure 5-C. Distribution of Police-Reported/Unreported Injuries 148
Figure 7-A. Historical Trend of Fatalities, Alcohol-Involved Fatalities, and Alcohol-Impaired Fatalities 156
Figure 7-B. Relative Risk of Crash by Blood Alcohol Concentration 162
Figure 7-C. Relative Incidence of Impaired and Unimpaired BAC Levels to All Crashes 164
Figure 7-D. Relative Incidence of BAC Levels in Alcohol Involved Crashes by Injury Severity 164
Figure 7-E. Percent of Positive BAC Crashes Attributable to Alcohol by BAC Level 171
Figure 7-F. Percent of Injuries Attributable to Alcohol by Injury Severity Level 171
Figure 10-A. Fatality Rates per 100,000 Registered Vehicles by Vehicle Type 183
Figure 10-B/Figure 10-C. Observed Helmet Use 188
Figure 10-C/Figure 10-4. Realized and Unrealized Fatality Benefits From Motorcycle Helmet Use 193
Figure 10-D/Figure 10-5. Realized and Unrealized Economic Benefits From Motorcycle Helmet Use 194
Figure 11-A. Observed Belt Use Rate 200
Figure 11-B. UPFC and Percentage of Lives Saved as a Function of Observed Belt Use 201
Figure 11-C. Realized and Unrealized Fatality Benefits From Safety Belt Use 206
Figure 11-D. Realized and Unrealized Economic Benefits From Safety Belt Use 207
Figure 12-A. Rural Percentage of Motor Vehicle Injury by Injury Severity 218
Figure 12-B. Distribution of Economic Costs, Rural Roadway Crashes 225
Figure 12-C. Distribution of Economic Costs, Urban Roadway Crashes 226
Figure 12-D. Distribution of Economic Costs by Roadway Type 226
Figure 12-E. Distribution of Comprehensive Costs, Rural Roadway Crashes 227
Figure 12-F. Distribution of Comprehensive Costs, Urban Roadway Crashes 227
Figure 12-G. Distribution of Comprehensive Costs by Roadway Type 228
Figure 12-H. Portion of Rural Injuries MAIS3+ 229
Figure 12-I. Portion of Urban Injuries MAIS3+ 229
Figure 14-A. Source of Payment for Motor Vehicle Crash Costs 246
Table A-1. Total Comprehensive Costs, $5.1 Million VSL 248
Table A-2. Comprehensive Unit Costs, $5.1 Million VSL 248
Table A-3. Total Comprehensive Costs, $12.6 Million VSL 249
Table A-4. Comprehensive Unit Costs, $12.6 Million VSL 250
Table B-1. Economic Costs by Body Region 251
Table B-2. QALY Values by MAIS, Body Region and Injury Status 252
Table C-1. All CDS Equivalent Cases 254
Table C-2. Non-CDS, Unbelted 255
Table C-3. Non-CDS, Belted 255
Table C-4. Non-CDS, Unknown if Belted 255
Table C-5. Non-CDS, Nonoccupants/Motorcyclists 256
Table D-1. KABCO NONFATAL INJURY UNIT COSTS 257
Table E-1. Data and Methods for Estimating Medical Costs of Fatal Injuries 259
Table E-2. Data and Methods for Estimating Medical Costs of Non-Fatal Injuries Requiring Hospitalization 261
Table E-3. Data and Methods for Estimating Medical Costs of Non-Fatal, Non-Admitted Injuries Treated in Emergency Departments 266
Table F-1. 2008 crash costs per fatal victim at different discount rates 274
Table F-2. 2007-2008 HCUP-based medical unit costs at different discount rates, AIS-90 275
Table F-3. 2007-2008 HCUP-based unit earnings loss at different discount rates, AIS-90 278
Table F-4. 2007-2008 HCUP-based unit household production loss at different discount rates, AIS-90 281
Table F-5. 2007-2008 HCUP-based medical unit costs at different discount rates, AIS-85 284
Table F-6. 2007-2008 HCUP-based unit earnings loss at different discount rates, AIS-85 287
Table F-7. 2007-2008 HCUP-based unit household production loss at different discount rates, AIS-85 290
Figure A-A. Components of Comprehensive Costs, $5.1 Million VSL 249
Figure A-B. Components of Comprehensive Costs, $12.6 Million VSL 250