Contents
Executive Summary 4
List of Acronyms 20
1. Introduction 22
1.1. Objectives 22
1.2. Project Organization 22
2. Definition of Crash Scenarios for Study and Functional Requirements 24
2.1. Identification of Crash Scenarios From National Databases 24
2.2. Pedestrian Scenarios Observed During the CIB ROAD Trip 28
2.3. Scenarios Factors for Test Method Definition 29
2.3.1. Pedestrian Direction 31
2.3.2. Ambient Light Conditions 31
2.3.3. Obstructions 32
2.3.4. Test Vehicle Speeds 33
2.3.5. Pedestrian Test Mannequin Speeds 34
2.3.6. Driver Action Attempted 35
2.3.7. Preliminary Pedestrian Test Mannequin Sizes 36
3. Test Equipment 38
3.1. Baseline Test Vehicles 38
3.2. PCAM Project Test Vehicles 38
3.2.1. Project Vehicle 1 39
3.2.2. Project Vehicle 2 40
3.2.3. Project Vehicle 3 40
3.3. Mannequins 41
3.3.1. Baseline Pedestrian Mannequin Targets 41
3.3.2. PCAM Test Mannequins for Validation Testing 46
3.4. Test Apparatus 49
3.4.1. Concept Development and Selection 49
3.4.2. General Apparatus Requirements 54
3.4.3. Evaluation of Test Apparatus 55
3.4.4. Baseline Tests 55
3.4.5. Preparations for Validation Testing 60
3.4.6. Validation Testing 65
3.4.7. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus 66
4. Development, Validation and Finalization of Test Methods 73
4.1. Functional Test Method Development Process 73
4.1.1. Initial Prove-out Tests using Representative Baseline PCAM Systems 74
4.1.2. Validation of the Test Methods and Mannequin Targets 74
4.2. Functional Test Method Validation 75
4.2.1. General Test Conditions 75
4.2.2. Primary Scenarios (S1, S2, S3 and S4) 78
4.2.3. Setup Method for Ground Truth 78
4.2.4. S1: Crossing Mannequin Perpendicular to Vehicle Path 79
4.2.5. S1: Crossing Mannequin Perpendicular to Vehicle Path Procedures for Dynamic Brake Support (DBS) Systems 85
4.2.6. S2: Vehicle Turning Right into Mannequin Crossing Path 87
4.2.7. S3: Vehicle Turning Left into Mannequin Crossing Path 88
4.2.8. S4: Mannequin Moving Parallel to Vehicle Path 89
4.3. Real-World Operational Assessment Data (ROAD) Trip 90
4.3.1. Overview of PCAM ROAD Trip Design 90
4.3.2. Overview of PCAM ROAD Trip Vehicles 93
4.3.3. ROAD Trip Summary 93
4.3.4. PCAM System Operational Observations 99
4.3.5. Detailed Analysis of ROAD Trip Data from Vehicle 2 105
4.3.6. Environmental Conditions Not Assessed by ROAD Trip 140
4.4. Operational Test Method Validation 143
4.4.1. General Test Conditions 144
4.4.2. O1: Operation Test Procedure for Crossing Mannequin Perpendicular to Vehicle Path 144
4.4.3. O2: Operation Test Procedure for Vehicle Turning Right Toward Mannequin Outside of Path 146
4.4.4. O3: Operational Test Procedure for Vehicle Turning Left into Mannequin Outside of Path 147
4.4.5. O4: Operational Test Procedure for Mannequin Moving Parallel to Vehicle Path 149
4.4.6. Operational Test Procedure for Vehicle Changing Lanes Toward Mannequin Outside of Path 150
4.5. Functional Test Results from Validation Testing 151
4.5.1. S1 Centered: Mannequin Crossing Perpendicular to the Vehicle Path 154
4.5.2. S1 Far Side: Mannequin Crossing Perpendicular to the Vehicle Path With Alternate Timing 158
4.5.3. S1 Far Side With Stop in Lane Center 159
4.5.4. S1: Comparison PCAM Test Apparatus Versus VRTC Test Apparatus 159
4.5.5. S2/S3: Vehicle Turns Right or Left at Crossroads 160
4.5.6. S4: Mannequin in Line With the Vehicle Path Conducted Using PCAM and VRTC-Rigs 162
4.5.7. Influence of Lighting Conditions 166
4.5.8. Dynamic Brake Support Testing 168
4.6. Operational Test Results From Validation Testing 171
5. Support to NHTSA for Benefits Estimation Methodology Development and Coordination With Global PCAM Programs 174
5.1. Support for Benefit Estimation Activities 174
5.2. PCAM Global Coordination Activities 174
6. Conclusions and Recommendations 176
6.1. Functional Tests 176
6.1.1. CIB Tests 176
6.1.2. DBS Tests 178
6.1.3. Other Important Test Parameters 178
6.2. Operational Tests 180
7. References 183
Appendix A. Sixty-Seven Pedestrian Crash Scenarios Defined by the Volpe During Analysis of the National Databases 184
Appendix B. Analysis of CIB ROAD Trip Data 186
B.1. CIB ROAD Trip Analysis for Vehicle E 190
B.1.1. S1: Potential Cross Path Conflicts 192
B.1.2. S2: Potential Right Turn into Conflicts 194
B.1.3. S3: Potential Left Turn Into Conflicts 196
B.1.4. S4: Potential In-Line Conflicts 197
B.1.5. S5a, b, c: Bystanders and Potential False Positives 199
Appendix C. Examples of Various Scenarios for Vehicle E 200
C.1. S1:Potential Cross-Path Conflicts 200
C.2. S2: Potential Right Turn into Conflicts 202
C.3. S3: Potential Left Turn into Conflicts 204
C.4. S4: Potential In-Line Conflicts 206
C.5. S5: Bystanders and Potential False Positives 207
Appendix D. Crash Factors Relative to 20 Pedestrian Crash Scenarios 212
Appendix E. Baseline Test Apparatus Structure 235
E.1. Truss and Equipment Lift/Permanent Support 235
E.1.1. Mannequin Carriage Track With Adjustability 235
E.1.2. Mannequin Carriage With Radar-masking Reflectors, Ground Truth System, and Mannequin Interfaces 237
E.2. Test Apparatus Drivetrain 237
E.2.1. Series Wound DC Motor 237
E.2.2. Electrically Released Brake 237
E.2.3. Gear Box 238
E.2.4. Cogged Drive Pulley 239
E.2.5. Cogged Drive Belt 240
E.2.6. Tensioner 241
E.2.7. Cogged Idler, Tensioner Pulleys and Belt Trough 241
E.2.8. Batteries - 48 Volt 241
E.3. Test Apparatus Motion Control System 242
E.3.1. Motor Controller 242
E.3.2. Main Contactor and Reversing Contactors 243
E.3.3. Shaft Encoder 243
E.3.4. Emergency Stop Buttons 244
E.3.5. End-of-Travel Switches 245
E.3.6. Control Box 245
Appendix F. Mannequin Characterization Testing 249
Appendix G. ROAD Trip Driving Routes by City and Test Vehicle 253
Table 1. Twenty Pedestrian Crash Scenarios Identified by the Volpe Center Ranked by Functional Years Lost (Based on the Combined 2005 - 2009 GES Data) 26
Table 2. Functional Years Lost and Fatalities for Defined PCAM Test Scenarios (Based on Volpe's Analysis of 5 Years of GES Data) 28
Table 3. Sample GES Crash Factor Data for Test Method Definition 30
Table 4. Comparison of Pedestrian Crashes by Lighting Condition 32
Table 5. Comparison of Pedestrian Crashes With and Without Obstructions 33
Table 6. Driver "Corrective" Action Attempted 35
Table 7. Summary of Adult Human Measurements 37
Table 8. Preliminary Baseline Test Factors 37
Table 9. Test Vehicles With Pedestrian Detection Sensors and Active Braking Technology 39
Table 10. Project Vehicle 1 Sensor Parameters 40
Table 11. Project Vehicle 2 Sensor Parameters 40
Table 12. Project Vehicle 3 Sensor Parameters 41
Table 13. Selected PCAM Mannequin Measurements 42
Table 14. Mannequin Attributes and Configurations Examined During Characterization Tests 47
Table 15. Summary of Subjective Comparisons of Initial Apparatus Design Concepts 52
Table 16. Specified DGPS Equipment Accuracy for Position, Velocity, and Acceleration 77
Table 17. Data Channels Acquired During Testing 77
Table 18. Vehicle and Mannequin Locations Used to Establish Obstruction Screen Positions 84
Table 19. Typical Hours and Distances Travelled 97
Table 20. Data Collection from Vehicle 1 100
Table 21. TTC Settings for FCW, Precharge and Intervention Braking 107
Table 22. Test Parameters for O1 Where Pedestrian Clears Path 116
Table 23. Test Parameters for O2 120
Table 24. Test Parameters for O3 124
Table 25. Test Parameters for O4 128
Table 26. Test Parameters for Low Speed Lane Change 133
Table 27. Test Parameters for High Speed Lane Change 133
Table 28. Test Parameters for Curve Entrance 136
Table 29. Validation Test Matrix 152
Table 30. Number of Runs During Validation Testing 152
Table 31. Classification of Events for Functional Test Scenarios 154
Table 32. Operational Test Results During Validation Testing Phase 173
Table 33. Proposed Minimum Performance Specifications for S1 Tests 177
Table 34. Recommended Operational Test Procedures 181
Figure ES 1. Four Pedestrian Crash Scenarios Defined 5
Figure ES 2. Test Apparatus Used to Simulate Pedestrian Crashes During Testing 5
Figure 1. Four Scenario Groups Studied in PCAM Project 27
Figure 2. Estimated Vehicle Travel Speeds 34
Figure 3. Example of Radar Reflectivity Data for an Adult Pedestrian in Backward Orientation Using a 76/77 GHz Radar 43
Figure 4. PCAM Mannequin Shoulder Joint Construction 44
Figure 5. Illustrations of Pedestrian Mannequins: Adult Mannequin (Left and Center Photos) and Child Mannequin (Right Photo) 45
Figure 6. Adult Mannequin in Obstructed Test Configuration 45
Figure 7. Baseline PCAM Child Mannequin 46
Figure 8. Indexing Hip Joints 48
Figure 9. Mannequin Configuration Selected for PCAM Validation Test Phase 49
Figure 10. Sky Truss Concept 50
Figure 11. Swing Bridge Concept 50
Figure 12. Ground Sled Concept 51
Figure 13. Overhead Truss Concept 54
Figure 14. Baseline Test Apparatus 55
Figure 15. Baseline Test Apparatus Components 56
Figure 16. Schematic of Baseline S1 Scenario Equipment 57
Figure 17. Baseline S1 Scenario Mannequin Collision Position 58
Figure 18. Baseline Testing Mannequin Speed From Multiple Weeks 59
Figure 19. Carriage Speed Variation in Weeks 4 and 5 of Baseline Testing 59
Figure 20. Servo Drive and Gearbox 61
Figure 21. Servo Drive, Gearbox, and Drive Pulley With Improved Mounting System 61
Figure 22. Illustration of Improved Apparatus Support System 62
Figure 23. Illustration of New Method for Mannequin Attachment to Overhead Carriage 63
Figure 24. Illustration of Quick-Release Mechanism for Mannequin Attachment to Support Pole 63
Figure 25. Illustration of Quick-Release Mechanism for Mannequin Attachment to Support Pole 64
Figure 26. Illustration of Mannequin Support Pole 64
Figure 27. Mannequin Speed After Test Apparatus Improvements 65
Figure 28. Mannequin Position Variation During S1 Validation Testing 66
Figure 29. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus in Crossing Configuration 67
Figure 30. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus in Crossing Configuration 68
Figure 31. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus Track, Sled, and Mannequin in Crossing Configuration 69
Figure 32. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus Return Pulley 70
Figure 33. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus in S1 Crossing Configuration 70
Figure 34. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus in S4 Configuration 71
Figure 35. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus in S4 Configuration 71
Figure 36. VRTC Ground-Based Apparatus Laser Triggering and Tracking 72
Figure 37. Four Pedestrian Crash Scenarios Examined in PCAM Project 73
Figure 38. Illustration of the Winding Road Course 76
Figure 39. Mannequin Direction Description for Scenario Diagrams 78
Figure 40. Ground Truth and Mannequin Trigger Setup 79
Figure 41. S1 - Vehicle Heading Straight With Mannequin Crossing Path (No Obstruction) 80
Figure 42. S1 - Alternate Test: Vehicle Heading Straight With or Without Mannequin Stops at Center of Path (No Obstruction) 81
Figure 43. S1 - Vehicle Heading Straight With Mannequin Crossing Path (With Obstruction for 1,300 and 2,700 ms TTC Reveal Times) 81
Figure 44. Illustration of Mannequin Obstruction Screen 83
Figure 45. S1 - Vehicle Heading Straight With Mannequin Crossing Path (No Obstruction) 86
Figure 46. S1 Alternate Test - Vehicle Heading Straight With Mannequin Stopping at Center of Path (No Obstruction) 87
Figure 47. S2 - Vehicle Turning Right With Mannequin Crossing Path 88
Figure 48. S3 - Vehicle Turning Left With Mannequin Crossing Path 89
Figure 49. S4 - Vehicle Straight With Mannequin Moving Along Path 90
Figure 50. S4 - Vehicle Straight With Mannequin Static at Center of Path 90
Figure 51. Overall Route of East Coast Trip 91
Figure 52. Overall Route of Florida Trip 92
Figure 53. Overall Route of West Coast Trip 93
Figure 54. Example Map of Vehicle 1 Driving Routes for Boston 94
Figure 55. Percent of Time Driven by Speed Range and City During the East Coast Trip (Vehicle 1) 95
Figure 56. Percent of Time Driven by Speed Range and City During Florida Trip (Vehicle 1) 95
Figure 57. Percent of Time Driven by Speed Range and City During West Coast Trip (Vehicle 1) 96
Figure 58. Percentage of Time Driven by Speed Range and City During the East Coast Trip (Vehicle 2) 98
Figure 59. Percentage of Time Driven by Speed Range and City During Florida Trip (Vehicle 2) 98
Figure 60. Percent of Time Driven by Speed Range and City During West Coast Trip (Vehicle 2) 99
Figure 61. S1 Pedestrian Crossing Scenario Moving Right-to-Left, Unobstructed 101
Figure 62. S4 Pedestrian In-Path Scenario Moving Away From the Vehicle 101
Figure 63. S1 Pedestrian Crossing Scenario Moving Left-to-Right, Obstructed by a Truck 101
Figure 64. Tricycle Example 102
Figure 65. PCAM Vehicle Driving Toward Bicyclist 102
Figure 66. S1 Configuration With Person in Wheel Chair, Vehicle Stationary 103
Figure 67. Bicyclist Stopped Along the Roadway on the Outside of a Left Curve 103
Figure 68. Left Curve Inside a Tunnel 103
Figure 69. Print of a Person on a Bus Outside of the Vehicle's Travel Lane 104
Figure 70. Steering Toward a Mailbox or Garbage Can While Turning 104
Figure 71. Steering Toward a Sign Outside of the Vehicle Path 104
Figure 72. PCAM ROAD Trip Potential FCW Event Distribution 109
Figure 73. PCAM ROAD Trip Potential False Precharge Events 110
Figure 74. PCAM ROAD Trip Potential Autobraking Events 110
Figure 75. Operational Test Scenario Types 111
Figure 76. Example of Pedestrian Crossing Laterally (O1) 113
Figure 77. Speed Distribution for O1 Scenario 114
Figure 78. Yaw Rate Distribution for O1 Scenario 114
Figure 79. Lateral Acceleration Distribution for O1 Scenario 115
Figure 80. Longitudinal Acceleration Distribution for O1 Scenario 115
Figure 81. TTC When Pedestrian Clears Path for O1 Scenario 116
Figure 82. Example of Right Turn Toward Pedestrian (O2) 117
Figure 83. Speed Distribution for O2 Scenario 118
Figure 84. Yaw Rate Distribution for O2 Scenario 119
Figure 85. Longitudinal Acceleration Distribution for O2 Scenario 119
Figure 86. Radius of Curvature Distribution for O2 Scenario 120
Figure 87. Example of Left Turn Toward Pedestrian (O3) 121
Figure 88. Speed Distribution for O3 122
Figure 89. Yaw Rate Distribution for O3 123
Figure 90. Longitudinal Acceleration Distribution for O3 123
Figure 91. Radius of Curvature Distribution for O3 124
Figure 92. Example of Longitudinally Moving Pedestrian (O4) 125
Figure 93. Speed Distribution for O4 126
Figure 94. Yaw Rate Distribution for O4 127
Figure 95. Lateral Acceleration Distribution for O4 127
Figure 96. Longitudinal Acceleration Distribution for O4 128
Figure 97. Example of Lane Change 129
Figure 98. Speed Distribution for Lane Change 130
Figure 99. Longitudinal Acceleration Distribution for Lane Change 131
Figure 100. Range to Pedestrian Distribution for Lane Change (Low Speed) 132
Figure 101. Range to Pedestrian Distribution for Lane Change (High Speed) 132
Figure 102. Example of Curve Entrance 134
Figure 103. Speed Distribution for Curve Entrance 135
Figure 104. Lateral Acceleration Distribution for Curve Entrance 135
Figure 105. Longitudinal Acceleration Distribution for Curve Entrance 136
Figure 106. False Pedestrian ID From Sign/Fire Hydrant 137
Figure 107. False Pedestrian ID From Pole 138
Figure 108. False Pedestrian ID From Vehicle Features/Shadows 139
Figure 109. False Pedestrian ID From Tree 140
Figure 110. No Evidence of Obstruction on the Outside of the Fascia 141
Figure 111. One Icicle on the Inside of the Foam Block 141
Figure 112. False Targets Are Circled in Red 142
Figure 113. Plastic Strips Used to Emulate Partial Ice Blockage 143
Figure 114. Five Mannequin Operational Test Scenarios Examined in PCAM Validation Testing 144
Figure 115. O1 - Vehicle Heading Straight With Mannequin Stopping Short of Vehicle Path (No Collision) 145
Figure 116. O1 - Vehicle Heading Straight With Mannequin Clearing Path of Vehicle (No Collision) 145
Figure 117. O2 - Vehicle Turning Right Toward Mannequin Outside of Path (No Collision) 147
Figure 118. O3 - Vehicle Turning Left With Mannequin Outside of Path (No Collision) 148
Figure 119. O4 - Vehicle Straight With Pedestrian Moving to Right of Path (No Collision) 149
Figure 120. O4 - Vehicle Straight With Mannequin Static to Right of Path (No Collision) 150
Figure 121. Vehicle Changing Lanes Toward Mannequin Outside of Path (No Collision) 151
Figure 122. Workflow for Automated Test Assessment 153
Figure 123. S1 Test Results Without Obstruction 155
Figure 124. S1 Test Results Slightly Obstructed (2.7 s Reveal Time) 156
Figure 125. S1 Test Results Obstructed (1.3 s Reveal Time) 157
Figure 126. S1 Far Edge Results 158
Figure 127. S1 Stop in Lane Center 159
Figure 128. S1 on VRTC Apparatus Compared to S1 on PCAM 160
Figure 129. S2: Vehicle Right Turn 161
Figure 130. S3 Vehicle Left Turn 162
Figure 131. S4 Static, Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 3 163
Figure 132. S4 Test Results for Vehicle 1 164
Figure 133. S4 Test Results for Vehicle 2 165
Figure 134. S4 Test Results for Vehicle 3 166
Figure 135. Light Measurement Plots 167
Figure 136. Transition Test Results Compared to Daylight Testing 168
Figure 137. Velocity Curve for DBS Test, 25 mph Vehicle Speed 169
Figure 138. DBS Test Results (S1, Walking, 25 mph Vehicle Speed) 170
Figure 139. DBS Test Results (S1, Running, 25 mph Vehicle Speed) 171
Figure 140. Example of Acceptable Vehicle Reaction From Analysis of O1 Mannequin Clears Path Operational Test 172
Figure 141. CIB ROAD Trip Route for Vehicle E (in Blue) and Vehicle H (in Red) 187
Figure 142. Total Observations for Each City (Vehicle E) and Detections (Vehicle H) 188
Figure 143. Observations Rate (Observations per Hour) for Each City (Vehicle E and Vehicle H) 189
Figure 144. Observations Classified using PCAM Scenarios S1 through S4 190
Figure 145. Additional Classification Scenario S5a-c for Bystander and Potential False Positives in Field 190
Figure 146. Adult and Child Observations (4,324 Observations) 191
Figure 147. Scenarios S1-S5 Observed During the CIB ROAD Trip (4,324 Observations) 191
Figure 148. All PCAM Test Scenarios (S1-S4) Observed During the CIB ROAD Trip 192
Figure 149. Subject Vehicle Speed Counts Observed for Scenario S1 (Vehicle E) 193
Figure 150. Obstruction Observations for Scenario S1 (Vehicle E) 193
Figure 151. Pedestrian Movement Observed for Scenario S1 (Vehicle E) 194
Figure 152. Pedestrian Dynamics Observed for Scenario S1 (Vehicle E) 194
Figure 153. Subject Vehicle Speed Counts for Right-Turning Vehicles Observed for Scenario S2 (Vehicle E) 195
Figure 154. Subject Vehicle Speed Counts for Left-Turning Vehicles Observed for Scenario S3 (Vehicle E) 196
Figure 155. Subject Vehicle Speeds Observed for Scenario 4 (Vehicle E) 197
Figure 156. Obstruction Observations for Scenario 4 (Vehicle E) 198
Figure 157. Pedestrian Movement Observed for Scenario 4 (Vehicle E) 198
Figure 158. Pedestrian Dynamics Observed for Scenario 4 (Vehicle E) 199
Figure 159. Example of Pedestrian Crossing in Front of Host Vehicle 200
Figure 160. Example of Pedestrian Crossing Within Two Car Length of Host Vehicle 201
Figure 161. Example of Crossing Pedestrians Not Directly in Front of Host Vehicle 201
Figure 162. Example of Pedestrians Crossing at the Start of a Right Turn 202
Figure 163. Example of Potential Pedestrian Conflict Affecting a Vehicle in Front of Host Vehicle 203
Figure 164. Example of Potential Pedestrian Conflict Resulting From an Unusual Intersection Geometry 203
Figure 165. Example of a Potential Pedestrian Conflict as Host Vehicle Turns Left 204
Figure 166. Example of a Potential Pedestrian Conflict as Host Vehicle Turns Left 205
Figure 167. Example of a Potential Pedestrian Conflict if Host Vehicle Turned Left but Host Vehicle Continued Straight 205
Figure 168. Example of a Direct In-line Potential Pedestrian Conflict 206
Figure 169. Pedestrian In-line Conflict in Which the Host Vehicle Is Traveling in a Curve 207
Figure 170. Example of S5a Pedestrian/Bystander on Median Near Roadside 208
Figure 171. Example of S5a Multiple Pedestrian/Bystanders on Median Near Roadside 208
Figure 172. Example of S5b Pedestrian/Bystanders Near Roadside Curb 209
Figure 173. Example of S5b Multiple Pedestrian/Bystander Near Roadside Curb 210
Figure 174. Example of S5c Pedestrian/Bystander Accessing or Loading Car a Parked Car 211
Figure 175. Example of S5c Pedestrian/Bystander Partially Obstructed between Parked Cars 211
Figure 176. Illustration of Support Truss 235
Figure 177. Illustration of Truss With Carriage Track, Carriage and Belt Trough 236
Figure 178. Illustration of Carriage Track and Carriage With Mannequin Suspension Beams 236
Figure 179. Illustration of Carriage with Radar Reflectors and Hinged Door Access to Ground-Truthing Box 237
Figure 180. Illustration of Motor Controller (left), Motor (center) and Brake (right) 238
Figure 181. Illustration of Brake (rear), Gear Box (center), and Shaft Encoder (foreground) 239
Figure 182. Illustration of Drive Pulley (lower right) and Tensioner Assembly (left) 240
Figure 183. Illustration of Drive Belt and Carriage Attachment to Rail 241
Figure 184. Illustration of Batteries and Battery Chargers 242
Figure 185. Illustration of the Controller With Contactors 243
Figure 186. Illustration of Drive Train With Shaft Encoder Shown in Foreground 244
Figure 187. Illustration of End-of-Travel Switch 245
Figure 188. Illustration of Control Box With Emergency Stop Button and Touch Screen 246
Figure 189. Illustration of Control Box Showing Programmable Logic Controller, Brake Power Supply, and Brake Amplifier 247
Figure 190. Illustration of the Nine Clothing Combinations Examined During Mannequin Characterization Testing 250
Figure 191. Illustration of the Mannequin Positions Evaluated During Characterization Testing 251
Figure 192. Illustration of Mannequin Positions Used During Characterization Testing 252
Figure 193. Vehicle 1 Driving Routes in Boston, Massachusetts; Vehicle 2 Routes Not Available 253
Figure 194. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in New York City 254
Figure 195. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in Washington, DC 255
Figure 196. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in Jacksonville and St. Augustine, Florida 256
Figure 197. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in Orlando, Florida 257
Figure 198. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in Tampa and St. Petersburg, Florida 258
Figure 199. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in Miami, Florida 259
Figure 200. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in Las Vegas, Nevada 260
Figure 201. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in San Diego, California 261
Figure 202. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in Los Angeles, California 262
Figure 203. Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 2 Driving Routes in San Francisco, California 263