Contents
Chapter 1. Background on Automated Driving Concepts 7
Project Background and Purpose 7
Levels of Automation 8
Level 0 (L0, No-Automation) 8
Level 1 (L1, Function-Specific Automation) 8
Level 2 (L2, Combined Function Automation) 9
Level 3 (L3, Limited Self-Driving Automation) 9
Level 4 (L4, Full Self-Driving Automation) 9
Project Research Questions 10
Chapter 2. International Programs Addressing Vehicle Automation 12
Europe 12
European iMobility Forum Working Group on Vehicle Automation 12
European Commission 13
United Kingdom 19
The Netherlands 22
France 24
Germany 24
Italy 25
Asia 25
Japan 25
South Korea 27
Chapter 3. Prior Human Factors Studies of Vehicle Automation Concepts 28
Levels of Automation and Automation Taxonomies 28
Overview Studies 32
Studies of Automated Driving 33
Research Approaches Supporting Automated Driving 35
IVIS and Associated DVI Issues 35
Trust In Automated Vehicles 43
Adaptive Cruise Control and Forward Collision Warning Systems 46
Connected Vehicles 51
Chapter 4. Lessons Learned from Other Domains 52
Aviation and Unmanned Vehicles 52
Rail 60
Control System Automation 62
Key Lessons Learned from Other Domains 64
Chapter 5. Automated Driving-Relevant Databases 66
Chapter 6. Manufacturer Approaches to Vehicle Automation 68
Industry Motivation 68
Audi 69
BMW Group 69
Ford Motor Company 69
General Motors Corporation 69
Google 70
Mercedes Benz 70
Nissan Motor Company 70
Toyota Motor Corporation 71
Volvo Car Corporation 71
Highway Driving 71
Traffic Jam Assist 71
Highway-Speed Automation 72
City Street Driving 75
Automated Valet Parking 76
Enabling Technologies: State of the Art 77
Perception 77
Machine Intelligence and Decision-Making 79
Test Methods 81
User Aspects of Automated Driving 81
Consumer Attitudes towards Automated Driving 81
Driver-Vehicle Interactions 82
Chapter 7. Legal / Liability Aspects to Automated Driving 86
U.S. Perspectives 86
Accident Fault 88
European Perspectives 89
Chapter 8. Timeline of Vehicle Automation 91
Chapter 9. Summary 94
Studies of Automated Driving 94
Research Approaches Supporting Automated Driving 95
IVIS and Associated DVI Issues 95
Trust in Automated Vehicles 96
ACC, FCW, and Connected Vehicles 96
Lessons Learned from Other Domains 97
Industry Activity 99
Technology Challenges 99
User Issues 100
Legal / Liability Aspects 101
United States 101
Europe 102
Timeline 102
References 103
APPENDIX A. List of Acronyms 119
APPENDIX B. Study Summary Tables 122
Table 3-1. Sheridan and Verplank's (1978) Levels of Automation 28
Table 3-2. Riley's (1989) Taxonomy of Automation Levels 29
Table 3-3. Endsley and Kaber's (1999) Levels of Automation 30
Table 3-4. Gasser and Westhoff's (2012) Description and Categorization of Automated Driving Functions Drawn from the Report of the BASt Expert Group 31
Figure 6-1. Industry Motivations for Automation (Source: Author) 68
Table B-1. Summary of Key Relevant European Commission Studies 122
Table B-2. Additional International Projects Contributing to the Development of Automated Driving 125
Table B-3. Studies of Automated Driving 130
Table B-4. Research Approaches Supporting Automated Driving - IVIS and Associated DVI Issues 132
Table B-5. Research Approaches Supporting Automated Driving - Trust in L2 and L3 Automated Vehicles 139
Table B-6. Research Approaches Supporting Automated Driving - ACC and FCWS 143
Table B-7. Research Approaches Supporting Automated Driving - Connected Vehicles 148