Contents
Acronyms 10
I. Executive Summary 15
II. Introduction 23
A. Purpose of this report 23
B. History of V2V communication research program 25
1. History of ITS 25
2. History of V2V research program and its role in ITS 26
3. The Connected Vehicle Safety Pilot Program 30
4. Studies related to V2V light-vehicle research 32
5. Vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) 33
III. Safety Need 37
A. Crashes potentially addressed by V2V technology 38
B. Potential for V2V to address vehicle crashes 46
C. Ways of addressing the safety need 47
1. Scenarios addressed uniquely by vehicle-to-vehicle communications 47
2. Scenarios also addressed by vehicle sensor-based systems 49
3. Scenarios possibly addressed by a combination of vehicle resident sensors and V2V communications 50
D. Types of V2V devices 51
1. OEM devices 51
2. Aftermarket devices 51
3. Infrastructure-based devices 54
IV. Scope and Legal Authority 55
A. NHTSA's scope and legal authority and how it applies to vehicle to vehicle communication 55
1. Integrated OEM V2V technologies 58
2. Integrated aftermarket equipment 59
3. Non-integrated aftermarket equipment 60
4. Software that aids or updates the V2V system 62
5. Roadside infrastructure (V2I) 63
B. Agency actions that are practicable and consistent With its legal authority 67
1. Elements of the Safety Act that would apply to potential future agency actions 67
2. Safety standards for DSRC 76
3. Safety standards for DSRC-enabled safety applications 81
4. Discussion of need for additional legal authority prior to taking regulatory actions regarding vehicle to vehicle communication 84
C. Non-regulatory actions required to stand up V2V communications 84
D. Authority for the spectrum in which V2V will operate, and how it could affect the development of a V2V system 85
V. Technical Practicability 87
A. Technical practicability and its importance to an agency decision 87
B. Overview of hardware components enabling system operation 87
1. Components used in testing 88
2. Components required for V2V system operation 89
3. Vehicle-based hardware 89
4. Non-vehicle-based hardware 91
C. Overview of software enabling system operation 92
D. Interoperability 93
1. Interoperability and its importance 93
2. Current maturity level of V2V wireless communication channels 109
3. Interoperability performance requirements 118
E. System Limitations 127
1. What are the known system limitations for V2V communication? 127
2. Potential mitigation strategies for known system limitations 134
3. Device installation constraints and requirements 136
4. Managing device updates and improvements 137
F. Global activities and differences in V2V systems 138
1. Research and/or implementation of V2V communications in other regions 138
2. Differences between the current U.S. regional vision and other regions 138
VI. V2V Safety Applications 141
A. Performance metrics currently available for V2V safety applications 141
B. The safety applications 142
C. Key Findings for each V2V Safety Application 143
1. Forward Collision Warning 143
2. Emergency Electronic Brake Lights 144
3. Do Not Pass Warning 144
4. Left Turn Assist (LTA) 144
5. Intersection Movement Assist (IMA) 145
6. Blind Spot +Lane Change Warning 145
D. Key conclusions for each application 146
1. Forward Collision Warning 146
2. Blind Spot Warning + Lane Change Warning 146
3. Do Not Pass Warning 146
4. Left Turn Assist 147
5. Emergency Electronic Brake Light 148
6. Intersection Movement Assist 148
7. False warning improvement research 148
8. Performance measures improvement research 149
E. Driver-vehicle interface 151
F. Summary of major recommendations concerning safety applications 152
G. System compliance and enforcement 152
VII. Public Acceptance 155
A. The importance of public acceptance 155
1. Potential key aspects of consumer acceptance for V2V communication 155
2. Potential issues With industry support for V2V communication systems 158
3. Preliminary information on consumer acceptance 159
VIII. Privacy Considerations 166
A. Privacy considerations - what they are and why they are important 166
1. Transmission, collection, storage, and sharing of V2V data 167
2. Privacy policies framework 168
3. The fair information practice principles 170
B. NHTSA's interim privacy risk assessment 172
1. V2V system needs/functions that necessitate data transactions posing potential risks to privacy 175
2. Potential risks to privacy introduced by V2V communications or other data transactions necessary to satisfy system need 176
3. Technical, physical and/or policy controls evaluated to minimize potential privacy risks 177
4. Significance of the identified potential privacy risks 178
IX. V2V Communications Security 180
A. Overview and importance of security 180
1. Security options considered 181
2. Overview of PKI and how it works 185
3. Limitations of existing PKI systems 187
B. Current V2V security design concept 187
1. SCMS component functions 190
2. Pseudonym functions/certificates 190
3. Initialization functions/enrollment certificate 193
4. Comparing a basic PKI to the V2V security design 196
5. V2V security research conducted or underway 199
6. Overall application of cryptography in V2V communications 201
7. Additional information on the current V2V security system design and research 204
C. Overview of system integrity and management 206
1. Key elements of system integrity and management 208
2. SCMS ownership and operation 215
3. "Enforcement" of system integrity/SCMS manager 217
4. "Enforcement" of system integrity/Federal role 217
D. System governance and why it is important 218
1. Public model 221
2. Public-private partnership model 222
3. Private model 222
4. Scope of the SCMS system governance 226
X. Legal Liability 230
A. Overview 230
B. Industry's liability concerns and solutions 230
C. Liability concerns specific to the SCMS 233
D. Federal liability limiting mechanisms 233
E. NHTSA's assessment of industry liability 234
F. NHTSA's assessment of SCMS liability 235
XI. Preliminary Cost Estimates of V2V Implementation 238
A. Overview of preliminary estimated V2V costs and benefits 238
B. Discussion of V2V preliminary cost estimates 239
C. Projected vehicle equipment costs 240
1. OEM devices 241
2. Aftermarket devices 249
3. How the preliminary projected vehicle equipment cost estimates were developed 252
D. Projected fuel economy impact - fuel costs for increased weight 255
1. Fuel price and estimated miles per gallon 256
2. Vehicle miles traveled and survivability 257
3. Incremental weight from V2V equipment 257
4. Summary of fuel economy impact 258
E. Preliminary system communication costs 258
1. Certificate revocation list 260
2. Alternative communication systems 263
3. System requirements/network options 264
4. Communication costs conclusions 273
F. Security credentials management system cost modeling 274
1. Preliminary projected costs for SCMS 274
2. Funding the SCMS 278
G. Conclusion of preliminary V2V implementation cost estimates 278
H. Economic practicability 279
XII. Preliminary Effectiveness and Benefits Estimates of V2V 281
A. Analysis of preliminary benefits of V2V technology 281
1. Analysis overview 281
2. Technology implementation scenarios 283
3. Target population for V2V technology 284
B. Effectiveness of the V2V safety applications 288
1. Safety Impact Methodology - SIM 289
2. Driving Simulator Study - MiniSim 294
3. Injury probability curves 296
4. Crashworthiness effectiveness by MAIS 297
5. Effectiveness of Intersection Movement Assist - IMA 297
6. Effectiveness of Left Turn Assist - LTA 304
7. Summary of IMA and LTA effectiveness 306
C. Fleet communication rate (Ci) 307
D. Projected benefits of V2V technology 308
1. Maximum annual estimated benefits 308
2. Annual Estimated Benefits by Calendar Year 309
XIII. Appendix A. Tables 310
XIV. Appendix B. List of Policy, Standards and Research Needs 322
XV. Appendix C. List of Tables, Figures and Equations 323
Table III-1. 37 Pre-Crash Scenario Typology 38
Table III-2. Societal Cost and Ranking of 22 Target Light-Vehicle Pre-Crash Scenarios 42
Table III-3. Light-Vehicle 2004-2008 GES Averages for V2V Target Pre-Crash Scenarios 44
Table III-4. Groups of Target Light-Vehicle V2V Pre-Crash Scenarios and Associated Societal Cost 45
Table III-5. Aftermarket Safety Device Types 53
Table V-1. Contents of BSM Part I 97
Table V-2. Contents of BSM Part II 98
Table V-3. Cooperative System Standards for V2V Communications 102
Table V-4. Contents of Draft J2495.1 Standard 104
Table V-5. ITS V2X Cooperative System Standards Latest Publication and Current Status 108
Table V-6. Performance requirements used in V2V research 122
Table V-7. Collision Avoidance Sensor Summary 127
Table VI-1. V2V Safety Applications 142
Table VII-1. Comparison of Findings between Driver Acceptance Clinics and Safety Pilot Model Deployment during the First 6 Months 164
Table IX-1. Security Approach Alternatives 182
Table IX-2. V2V Communication Security Research 199
Table IX-3. VIIC Concept of Security Certificate Management System Functional Area Distribution 227
Table XI-1. Summary of Preliminary Costs per Vehicle 240
Table XI-2. Summary of Likely Costs in Year 1 for New Vehicles 241
Table XI-3. Likely Supplier Costs to OEM 242
Table XI-4. Preliminary Consumer Costs (for just supplier parts) Per Vehicle 243
Table XI-5. Preliminary Estimates of Display Costs 244
Table XI-6. Preliminary Installation Cost Estimates 245
Table XI-7. Estimated Percentage of GPS in the New Vehicle Fleet 248
Table XI-8. Summary of Cost Estimates in Year 1 for New Vehicles 248
Table XI-9. Estimated Consumer Cost of Aftermarket Equipment - Retrofit Device 250
Table XI-10. Estimated Consumer Cost of Aftermarket Equipment - Self-Contained Device 250
Table XI-11. Estimated Consumer Cost of Aftermarket Equipment - Vehicle Awareness Device 251
Table XI-12. Aftermarket Consumer Cost Estimates for Year 1 252
Table XI-13. V2V Technology Sales Assumptions in New Vehicles 254
Table XI-14. Estimated Miles per Gallon (MPG) Values 257
Table XI-15. Summary of Incremental Vehicle Weight Due to V2V Equipment 258
Table XI-16. Impact of weight increase on fuel economy over the lifetime of the model year vehicle 258
Table XI-17. Cost Assumptions 268
Table XI-18. OBE Subcomponent Cost Estimate 268
Table XI-19. Total Estimated Costs - Cellular 269
Table XI-20. Total Estimated Costs - Hybrid 269
Table XI-21. Total Estimated Costs - DSRC 270
Table XI-22. Road Side Equipment Cost Estimates 270
Table XI-23. Communication Data Cost Estimate per Vehicle 271
Table XI-24. Total Communication Cost Estimates per Year by Scenario 272
Table XI-25. Total Cost Estimates Comparing Full CRL to No CRL in Millions 273
Table XI-26. Undiscounted Cost Estimates per Component for Selected Years, Scenario 1, Two Year Downloads 277
Table XI-27. Undiscounted Cost Estimate of PCA for Selected Years, Scenario 1, Two Year Downloads 278
Table XII-1. Safety Target Population for FCW, LCW, IMA, and LTA - Passenger Vehicles 287
Table XII-2. Breakdown of Drivers in IMA Study 295
Table XII-3. Probabilities of MAIS Injuries and Injury Reduction Effectiveness 297
Table XII-4. Percent of Crash Distribution by Approaching Vehicle Traveling Speed (pi) 298
Table XII-5. Percent of Impact Location 298
Table XII-6. SIM Estimated Initial Effectiveness (Eia1 and Eia2) 299
Table XII-7. Weighted IMA Effectiveness (Ea) for PCP-S Crash Scenario 300
Table XII-8. Percent of Crash Distribution by Approaching Vehicle Traveling Speed (pi) 300
Table XII-9. SIM Estimated Initial Effectiveness (Ea) 301
Table XII-10. Derived Average Delta-V (mph) by Simulated Crash Conditions 302
Table XII-11. Traveling Speed Distribution 303
Table XII-12. Delta-V for an Average PCP-S Crash 303
Table XII-13. Derived Average Delta-V (mph) by Simulated Crash Conditions 303
Table XII-14. Traveling Speed Distribution 304
Table XII-15. Delta-V for an Average PCP-M Crash 304
Table XII-16. Effectiveness for LTAP-M and LTAP-S 306
Table XII-17. System Effectiveness 306
Table XII-18. System Effectiveness of IMA and LTA Crash Avoidance (Ea) 306
Table XII-19. Non-Discounted Annual Preliminary Maximum Estimated Benefit Summary All Passenger Vehicles Equipped With V2V Technology 309
Table XIII-1. RSE Data Cost per Vehicle 310
Table XIII-2. PCP-S Scenario - Delta-V Distribution by Approaching Vehicle Traveling Speed Baseline (Without V2V) 311
Table XIII-3. PCP-S Scenario - Delta-V Distribution by Approaching Vehicle Traveling Speed Treatment (With V2V) 313
Table XIII-4. PCP-M Scenario - Delta-V Distribution by Approaching Vehicle Speed 315
Table XIII-5. Passenger Vehicle Fleet Communication Rates by Technology Implementation Scenarios 317
Table XIII-6. Passenger Vehicle Fleet Communication Rate by Vehicle Types and Technology Implementation Scenarios 318
Table XIII-7. Preliminary Annual Benefits* Estimates of IMA and LTA Scenario 1 319
Table XIII-8. Preliminary Annual Benefits* Estimates of IMA and LTA Scenario 2 320
Table XIII-9. Preliminary Annual Benefits* Estimates of IMA and LTA Scenario 3 321
Figure II-1. Visual Representation of V2V Communication 30
Figure III-1. Target Unimpaired Light Vehicle Crashes Potentially Addressed by V2V 39
Figure III-2. 22 Target Light-Vehicle Pre-Crash Scenario Crash Statistics 40
Figure III-3. V2V Light-Vehicle Target Crashes Breakdown 41
Figure III-4. Examples of Crash Scenarios and Vehicle-to-Vehicle Applications 48
Figure III-5. Example of V2V Intersection Movement Assist Warning Scenario 49
Figure V-1. In-Vehicle Components of a V2V System 90
Figure V-2. Band Plan for DSRC Channel Spectrum 115
Figure V-3. Time Division Channel Usage 117
Figure V-4. V2V System 129
Figure V-5. Conventional System 129
Figure V-6. I-495 & Rt 66 Interchange 131
Figure VII-1. Full comparison of DAC and SP Driver responses 164
Figure IX-1. Simplified V2V Security System 188
Figure IX-2. Current V2V Security System Design for Deployment and Operations 189
Figure IX-3. V2V Security Design Comparison to a Basic PKI 197
Figure IX-4. Security Certificate Management System Organizational Model 212
Figure XI-1. Coverage of RSE by Road Type 265
Figure XII-1. V2V Benefits Estimation Target Population (Annual) Breakdown 288
Figure XII-2. SIM Logic and Structure 292
Policy Need IV-1. Road Side Equipment Authority 64
Policy Need IV-2. V2V Device Software Updates 81
Standards Need V-1. SAE Standards Maturity 101
Research Need V-1. Spectrum Sharing Interference 114
Research Need V-2. Impact of Software Implementation on DSRC Device Performance 125
Research Need V-3. DSRC Data Communication System Performance Measures 126
Research Need V-4. Development of Safety Application Test Metrics and Procedures 126
Research Need V-5. BSM Congestion Sensitivity 134
Research Need V-6. Relative Positioning Performance Test 135
Research Need V-7. Vehicle and Receiver Positioning Biases 136
Research Need VI-1. False Positive Mitigation 149
Research Need VI-2. Safety Application Performance Measure Rationale 149
Research Need VI-3. Practicability of Non-Ideal Driving Condition Testing 150
Research Need VI-4. Fused and Non-Fused V2V Safety Application Test Procedures 150
Research Need VI-5. Performance and Test Metric Validation 150
Research Need VI-6. DVI Minimum Performance Requirements 151
Research Need VI-7. Compliance Specifications and Requirements 153
Research Need VII-1. Consumer Acceptance 160
Research Need VIII-1. V2V Location Tracking via BSM 176
Research Need VIII-2. V2V Identification Capabilities 177
Research Need VIII-3. V2V Inventory of Privacy Controls 178
Research Need VIII-4. V2V Privacy Risk Assessment 179
Research Need IX-1. Misbehavior Authority 196
Research Need IX-2. Cryptographic flexibility 206
Research Need IX-3. Independent Security Design Assessment 211
Equation XI-1. Projected Fuel Economy Impact Calculation 256
Equation XII-1. Benefits Estimation Calculation 282
Equation XII-2. Effectiveness Calculation 283
Equation XII-3. Number of Crashes Avoided Calculation 289
Equation XII-4. Application Effectiveness Calculation 289
Equation XII-5. Exposure Ratio Calculation 290
Equation XII-6. Crash Prevention Ratio Calculation 290
Equation XII-7. MAIS Effectiveness Calculation 294
Equation XII-8. MAIS+Injury Probability of Risk 296
Equation XII-9. IMA PCP-S Crash Effectiveness Calculation 299
Equation XII-10. Communication Rate Calculation 307