Contents
About Public Health England 2
Executive summary 5
Introduction 8
Part one. Context for the literature review and toolkit 10
1.1. Violence against women 10
1.2. Public health 10
1.3. Prevalence 11
1.4. 'Lad culture' 12
1.5. The readiness of universities to change 13
1.6. The emergence of bystander programmes as a vehicle for change 13
Part Two. Theory of bystander intervention approaches to violence prevention in universities 15
2.1. Introduction to criminological theory 15
2.2. Bystander theory 16
2.2.1. Noticing the problem: knowledge 17
2.2.2. Feeling responsible 18
2.2.3. Skills for intervening 18
2.2.4. Barriers to intervening 18
2.3. Social norms theory 20
2.3.1. Social norms theory for perpetration 20
2.3.2. Social norms theory for bystander behaviour 20
2.3.3. Peer norms supportive of violence 21
2.3.4. Peer norms supportive of helping behaviour 21
2.4. Bystander programmes as complex models 22
2.4.1. Minimising conditions for motivated offenders and increasing conditions for capable guardianship 22
2.4.2. Minimising conditions for presence of vulnerable/suitable victims 24
2.5. Men's role in preventing violence against women 25
2.5.1. Engaging men 25
2.5.2. Voluntary versus compulsory programmes 26
2.5.3. Backlash and monitoring 26
2.6. Effective prevention 27
2.7. Implications: effective prevention for universities 31
Part Three. Literature review 33
3.1. Review methodology 33
3.2. Availability of evidence 36
3.3. Findings 37
3.3.1. Data on reported incidence of sexual violence as an outcome variable 37
3.3.2. Other correlates, indicators or proxy measures of violence against women among participants 42
3.3.3. Increased reporting of interventions made, as a variable 46
3.3.4. Data on steps towards intervening 47
3.3.5. Data on intention to make increased interventions 51
3.3.6. Data on effectiveness of interventions 52
3.4. Conclusions from the research data 52
Part Four. Development of 'The intervention initiative' 54
Part Five. Concluding remarks and future directions 56
References 58
Table 1. Criteria for effective prevention programming 30
Table 2/Table 1. Theory of change model 55
Figure 1. Four stages to becoming a prosocial bystander 17
Figure 2. Potential barriers to intervention 20
Figure 3. Cycle of change when interventions are made 24
Figure 4. Flow of Literature 35