Title page
Contents
Abstract 1
Introduction 6
Part 1: Understanding lead exposure 8
1.1. How lead enters the human-facing environment 8
1.2. How lead behaves in the environment 10
1.3. Process of exposure 11
Part 2: Principles of source assessment 13
2.1. Pathways of source assessment 13
2.2. Subjects of source assessment 14
2.3. Definitions and terminology 15
Part 3: Methods in source assessment 16
3.1. Life-cycle, process, market, and material flow analysis 16
3.2. Chemical analysis for lead detection 18
Qualitative methods 18
Quantitative methods 19
3.3. Biokinetic modelling 20
3.4. Statistical approaches 22
3.5. Experimental and quasi-experimental methods 22
3.6. Isotopic analysis 23
3.7. Integrating methods 24
Case study: rural Bangladesh 25
Part 4: Priorities for source assessment research 26
4.1. How widespread is contamination from lead-acid battery recycling? 27
4.2. To what extent are clean energy systems driving lead exposure in LMICs? 28
4.3. Are aluminium and ceramic cookware significant sources of population-level exposure? 29
4.4. How dangerous are contaminated cosmetics-particularly kohl/surma eyeliner? 30
4.5. How common is lead in water infrastructure in LMICs? 30
4.6. How can biokinetic modelling be calibrated to LMIC conditions? 31
Conclusion 31
Appendix: Agenda for technical roundtable on source apportionment 33
Endnotes 38
TABLE 1. Concentration of lead in various media required to meet certain BLL thresholds (Ages 24-36 months) 13
TABLE 2. Using biokinetic modelling to identify and apportion sources of lead exposure 21
FIGURE 1. Sources and pathways of lead exposure 8
FIGURE 2. Inputs to biokinetic modelling 12
FIGURE 3. Relationship between lead content of pots and leached lead in acetic acid solution 20
FIGURE 4. Isotopic composition of BLLs in blood and three suspected sources, rural Bangladesh 24
Boxes
BOX 1. Leachate testing 19