Title page
Contents
Abstract 2
1. Introduction 4
2. Conceptual framework 7
3. Background 9
4. Data 11
4.1. Integrated Living Conditions Survey 11
4.2. Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 12
4.3. Road quality data 14
5. Methodology 15
5.1. Empirical strategy 15
5.2. Identification strategy 16
6. Results 19
6.1. ILCS 19
6.2. DHS 24
6.3. Robustness checks 29
7. Discussion and conclusion 31
References 34
8. Appendix 39
Table 1. Rural employment by gender (DHS) 13
Table 2. Marginal effects - probability of positive outcome 22
Table 3. OLS estimates on number of hours worked in previous week 23
Table 4. First-stage regression 24
Table 5. Marginal effects of distance to roads in good condition on non-agricultural and skilled manual employment 27
Table 6. Marginal effects of distance to roads in good condition on seasonal employment and cash earnings 28
Table 7. Summary statistics of variables used - ILCS Survey 39
Table 8. Summary statistics of variables used - DHS Survey 40
Figure 1. Roads and settlements 11
Figure 2. Road quality reported by HHs in 2007-2015 12
Figure 3. Road quality by road segment 14
Figure 4. Digitized Military-topographic map of the Caucasus, 1903, fragment on Armenia 18
Figure 5. Plotted margins coefficients 29
Figure 6. Mine locations in Armenia 31
Figure 7. Rural employment indicators by Gender (DHS) 41
Figure 8. Distribution of road network quality by region (Marz) 42
Figure 9. Military-topographic map of the Caucasus, 1903 43