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Title page
Contents
Acknowledgments 6
Preface 9
Executive Summary 14
I. Tracking Wealth to Monitor Economic Progress 28
1. Wealth as an Indicator of Sustainability 29
2. How the World Bank Measures Comprehensive Wealth 48
3. Global and Regional Trends in Wealth, 1995-2020 66
4. The Role of Limited Substitutability for Measuring Sustainability with CWON 86
II. Measuring Components of Comprehensive Wealth 98
5. The Nonrenewable Wealth of Nations 99
6. Valuation of Hydroelectric Resources 124
7. Forests and Agricultural Lands 146
8. Blue Natural Capital: Marine Fish Stocks, Aquaculture, and Mangrove Coastal Protection Services 163
9. Human Capital Wealth: Global Trends 185
Conclusions 202
TABLE 4.1. The elasticity of substitution (σ₂), by ecosystem service types 94
TABLE 5.1. Percent change in nonrenewable natural capital per capita, by asset, region, and income group, 1995-2020 107
TABLE 6.1. Residential-to-producer price conversion factors by country/region 131
TABLE 6.2. Hydroelectric asset value, installed capacity, generation, and weighted average capacity factor by region, 1995 and 2020 136
TABLE 6.3. Ten wealthiest hydroelectric countries, 2020 138
TABLE 6.4. Hydroelectric asset value per unit of installed capacity, 10 wealthiest hydroelectric countries, 1995 and 2020 140
TABLE 7.1. Land cover for forest and agricultural lands in low-income countries, 1995 and 2020 157
TABLE 8.1. Resource rent estimates for Norwegian salmon and trout aquaculture, selected years, 1995-2020 173
TABLE 9.1. Human capital as a share of total wealth, 1995-2020 190
TABLE 9.2. Human capital as a share of total wealth, by region, 1995-2020 192
TABLE 9.3. Potential gains in human capital from gender equity, 1995-2020 196
FIGURE ES.1. Distribution of global wealth in nominal terms, by income group, 1995 and 2020 16
FIGURE ES.2A. Trends in real wealth per capita, by region, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 17
FIGURE ES.2B. Nominal wealth shares, by region, 2020 17
FIGURE ES.3. Countries with declining and non-declining real wealth per capita, 1995-2020 18
FIGURE ES.4A. Trends in global wealth per capita, by asset category, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 19
FIGURE ES.4B. Nominal wealth shares, by asset category, 2020 19
FIGURE ES.5A. Trends in renewable natural capital per capita, by asset, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 20
FIGURE ES.5B. Nominal wealth shares for renewable natural capital, by asset, 2020 20
FIGURE ES.6A. Trends in nonrenewable natural capital per capita, by asset, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 21
FIGURE ES.6B. Shares in nominal wealth for nonrenewable natural capital, by asset, 2020 21
FIGURE ES.7A. Trends in produced capital per capita, by region, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 22
FIGURE ES.7B. Nominal wealth shares for produced capital, by region, 2020 22
FIGURE ES.8A. Trends in human capital per capita, by region, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 23
FIGURE ES.8B. Nominal shares of human capital, by region, 2020 23
FIGURE ES.9. Changes in global real GDP and wealth per capita, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 24
FIGURE ES.10. Cumulative GDP per capita growth vs. cumulative wealth per capita growth, 1995-2020 25
FIGURE 1.1. Coverage of "natural capital" on the official SNA non-financial balance sheet for OECD countries 37
FIGURE 1.2. Exchange value vs. welfare value 39
FIGURE 1.3. Changes in prices and their implications for exchange and welfare values 40
FIGURE 1.4. The CWON wealth accounts (2024 release) and their relationship to the SNA and SEEA 42
FIGURE 3.1. Distribution of global wealth, by income group, 1995 and 2020 68
FIGURE 3.2. Real wealth per capita, by region, 1995-2020 68
FIGURE 3.3. Countries with declining and non-declining real wealth per capita, 1995-2020 70
FIGURE 3.4. Trends in real wealth per capita, by FCV status, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 70
FIGURE 3.5. Wealth per capita, by asset category 72
FIGURE 3.6. Change in wealth per capita, by income group and asset class, 1995-2020 72
FIGURE 3.7. Trends in renewable natural capital, by region, 1995-2020 73
FIGURE 3.8. Renewable natural capital per capita, by asset, 1995-2020 74
FIGURE 3.9. Nonrenewable natural capital per capita, by asset, index to 1995, 1995-2020 75
FIGURE 3.10. Produced capital per capita, by region, 1995-2020 76
FIGURE 3.11. Human capital per capita by region, 1995-2020 77
FIGURE 3.12. Shares of human capital by gender, 1995-2020 78
FIGURE 3.13. Changes in global GDP and wealth per capita, indexed to 1995, 1995-2020 79
FIGURE 3.14. Cumulative GDP per capita growth vs. cumulative wealth per capita growth, 1995-2020 80
FIGURE 4.1. A framework for introducing limited substitutability in production and consumption 88
FIGURE 4.2. Manufacturing employment by land and elasticity of land-labor substitution 89
FIGURE 4.3. Distribution of global wealth using differentiated discount rates, 1995 and 2020 92
FIGURE 4.4. Trends in wealth per capita using differentiated discount rates, indexed to 1995, 1995, and 2020 92
FIGURE 4.5. The value of non-wood forest ecosystem services, by the degree of substitutability 95
FIGURE 5.1. Global comprehensive wealth, nonrenewable natural capital, and GDP in per capita terms, 1995-2020 100
FIGURE 5.2. Change in global nonrenewable natural capital per capita, by asset, 1995-2020 105
FIGURE 5.3. Shares of nonrenewable wealth, global, 1995-2020 106
FIGURE 5.4. Change in nonrenewable natural capital wealth per capita, 1995-2020 108
FIGURE 5.5. Change in fossil fuel and mineral wealth, top 10 countries, 1995-2020 109
FIGURE 5.6. Shares of global wealth, selected regions, 1995-2020 110
FIGURE 5.7. Shares of nonrenewable wealth, by region, 1995-2020 111
FIGURE 5.8. Change in fossil fuel and mineral wealth, by income group 113
FIGURE 5.9. Change in fossil fuel and mineral wealth, by region group 114
FIGURE 5.10. Global map of the change in fossil fuel and mineral wealth per capita, 1995 and 2020 115
FIGURE 5.11. Global trends in mineral wealth per capita, by selected minerals, 1995-2020 117
FIGURE 5.12. Percent changes in mineral wealth, selected countries, by mineral, 1995-2020 118
FIGURE 5.13. Changes in global wealth per capita for selected minerals: cobalt, lithium, molybdenum 119
FIGURE 6.1. Hydroelectric asset value by region, 1995-2020 137
FIGURE 6.2. Hydroelectric asset value per capita by region, 1995-2020 137
FIGURE 6.3. Share of hydroelectric asset value in total energy asset values 141
FIGURE 7.1. Global wealth in land assets: percent shares by category in 2020 149
FIGURE 7.2. Trends in real wealth per capita in land assets, indexed to 1995, 1995-2020 149
FIGURE 7.3. Change in wealth per capita by land asset, 1995-2020 150
FIGURE 7.4. Combined predicted value of all recreational services, non-wood forest products, and water services, per hectare in 2020 (2020 US dollars) 151
FIGURE 7.5. Share of forest ecosystem services by region and asset category, 2020 151
FIGURE 7.6. Wealth per capita in non-timber forest ecosystem services, by region and by category of service, 2020 152
FIGURE 7.7. Share of national forest wealth in non-timber forest ecosystem services provided by protected areas and country, 2020 153
FIGURE 7.8. Change in wealth per capita in land assets by income group, 1995-2020 155
FIGURE 7.9. Share of land wealth in total wealth in low-income countries, 1995 and 2020 156
FIGURE 8.1. Key steps and data for estimating the flood protection benefits provided by mangroves 167
FIGURE 8.2. Differences in global mangrove cover between GMW 2.0 and GMW 3.0 168
FIGURE 8.3. Global marine fish wealth, indexed to 1995, 1995-2020 169
FIGURE 8.4. Per capita wealth from marine fish stocks, by income and region, 1995-2020 170
FIGURE 8.5. Wealth in marine fish stocks, top 20 countries, 2020 171
FIGURE 8.6. Countries with the top 20 largest loss of fish biomass per capita, 1995-2020 172
FIGURE 8.7. Egyptian tilapia/mullet aquaculture resource rent and sales value, 2010-2020 174
FIGURE 8.8. Resource rent estimates in selected countries and species, 1995-2020 176
FIGURE 8.9. Value of people and capital stock at risk and receiving risk reduction benefits in current US dollars, indexed to 1995, 1995-2020 177
FIGURE 8.10. Per hectare flood risk and mangrove benefits to people and capital stock by income level in nominal terms, 1995-2020 178
FIGURE 8.11. Mangrove area and the value of coastline protection services in real terms, indexed to 1995, 1995-2020 179
FIGURE 8.12. Mangrove coastline protection services value per capita, by income and region, indexed to 1995, 1995-2020 180
FIGURE 8.13. Countries with the largest mangrove coastline protection services value, 2020 181
FIGURE 9.1. Annual growth rates of human capital per capita, 1995-2020 191
FIGURE 9.2. Human capital per capita, by region, 1995-2020 (1995=100) 193
FIGURE 9.3. Nominal shares of human capital, by region, 2020 193
FIGURE 9.4. Shares of human capital by gender, 1995-2020 194
Boxes
BOX 1.1. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GDP AND COMPREHENSIVE WEALTH 33
BOX 1.2. ACCOUNTING FOR WATER IN CWON-CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 45
BOX 4.1. FORESTS AS COMPLEMENTS TO HUMAN HEALTH 95
BOX 5.1. ESTIMATING THE USER COSTS OF CAPITAL FOR NONRENEWABLE NATURAL CAPITAL 103
BOX 5.2. THE LOW-CARBON TRANSITION AND NONRENEWABLE NATURAL CAPITAL 121
BOX 6.1. DEFINITION OF HYDROELECTRIC ASSETS 126
BOX 7.1. TRENDS IN LAND ASSETS: COUNTRY EXAMPLES 154
BOX 7.2. KEY CHALLENGES IN ACCOUNTING FOR CARBON RETENTION SERVICES IN CWON 158
BOX 9.1. DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO MEASURE HUMAN CAPITAL 186
BOX 9.2. THE HUMAN CAPITAL INDEX AND CWON'S HUMAN CAPITAL 188
BOX 9.3. EXPERIMENTAL ESTIMATION OF QUALITY-ADJUSTED HUMAN CAPITAL 198
BOX 10.1. IMPLEMENTATION EXPERIENCE FROM COUNTRY-LEVEL WEALTH ESTIMATES 205
Box Figures
BOX FIGURE 1.1.1. GDP vs. wealth in the context of CWON 33
BOX FIGURE 7.2.1. Total global vegetation carbon stock (in megatons), 2020 159
BOX FIGURE 9.3.1. Real human capital by education level 199
BOX FIGURE 9.3.2. Real human capital vs. quality-adjusted real human capital, indexed 200
Annex Tables
TABLE A2.1. Example of two asset Törnqvist volume index 64
Annex Figures
FIGURE A3.1. Global wealth shares, 2020 83
FIGURE A3.2. GDP and wealth trends per capita in market exchange rates and PPP terms 83
FIGURE A3.3. Trends in wealth asset classes in market exchange rates and in PPP terms, by income group 85
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