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Title Page

Acknowledgments

Contents

CHAPTER 1. Introduction 13

CHAPTER 2. Literature review 19

2.1. Theoretical issues on error analysis 19

2.1.1. Empirical studies on error analysis of written language 23

2.1.2. Empirical studies on error analysis of spoken language 25

2.2. Grammar in second language acquisition 27

2.2.1. The importance of the grammar of spoken and written language 27

2.2.2. The importance of collocations in spoken and written language 32

2.2.3. Types of collocations 36

2.2.4. Empirical studies on collocation based on corpora 41

CHAPTER 3. Research procedure 47

3.1. Research questions 47

3.2. Research method 47

3.2.1. Participants 47

3.2.2. Instrument 48

3.2.3. Procedure 50

3.2.4. Analysis 51

CHAPTER 4. Results and discussion 53

4.1. Comparison between the written and spoken corpus 53

4.2. Classification and description of errors 63

4.2.1. Error classification of the written corpus 63

4.2.2. Error classification of the spoken corpus 81

4.2.3. Error comparison between the written and spoken corpus 94

4.2.4. Phrases in written and spoken corpus 96

4.2.5. Register difference between writing and speaking 101

4.3. Classification of collocation and collocational errors 106

4.3.1. Classification of collocations 106

4.3.2. Collocation errors in the written corpus 109

4.3.3. Collocation errors in the spoken corpus 114

CHAPTER 5. Conclusion and implications 122

References 133

Appendices 141

Appendix A: Coding manual 141

Appendix B: Writing sample I 143

Appendix C: Writing sample II 144

Appendix D: Speaking sample I 145

Appendix E: Speaking sample II 146

Appendix F: Top 30 words in speaking and writing between learners and native speakers 147

Appendix G: Collection of different types of errors 148

Abstract 152

LIST OF TABLES

[Table 1] Overview of the written and spoken corpora 53

[Table 2] Comparison of word frequencies for 20 most frequent words in written and spoken corpora 55

[Table 3] 20 most frequent words: 5 million-word CANCODE written and spoken corpus 57

[Table 4] 20 most frequent words: Written and spoken corpus of 13 native speakers 59

[Table 5] Overview of written corpus 60

[Table 6] Overview of spoken corpus 62

[Table 7] Breakdown of the error categories in written corpus 66

[Table 8] Misformation in written corpus 67

[Table 9] Omission in written corpus 73

[Table 10] Addition in written corpus 77

[Table 11] Misordering in written corpus 78

[Table 12] Miscellaneous errors in written corpus 79

[Table 13] Breakdown of the errors categories in spoken corpus 83

[Table 14] Omission in spoken corpus 85

[Table 15] Misformation in spoken corpus 87

[Table 16] Addition in spoken corpus 90

[Table 17] Misordering in spoken corpus 90

[Table 18] Miscellaneous in spoken corpus 91

[Table 19] Overview of written and spoken corpora 95

[Table 20] Types of grammatical collocations 106

[Table 21] Types of lexical collocations 108

[Table 22] Descriptive statistics for collocational errors in written corpus 110

[Table 23] Grammatical collocation errors in written corpus 111

[Table 24] Lexical collocation errors in written corpus 113

[Table 25] Descriptive statistics for collocational errors in spoken corpus 115

[Table 26] Grammatical collocational errors in spoken corpus 116

[Table 27] Lexical collocational errors in spoken corpus 118

[Table 28] Overview of collocational errors in written and spoken corpus 120

LIST OF FIGURES

[Figure 1] Raw data of written corpus 64

[Figure 2] Raw data excluded from analysis 65

[Figure 3] Coded subcategories for misformation 67

[Figure 4] Coded subcategories for omission 72

[Figure 5] Raw data of omission of preposition 74

[Figure 6] Raw data of omission of plural marker -s 75

[Figure 7] Coded subcategories for addition 76

[Figure 8] Raw data of fragments 81

[Figure 9] Raw data of spoken corpus 82

[Figure 10] Coded subcategories of omission 84

[Figure 11] Coded subcategories of misformation 86

[Figure 12] Coded subcategories of addition 89

[Figure 13] Raw data of play with in written corpus 97

[Figure 14] Raw data of play with in spoken corpus 97

[Figure 15] N-Gram data for play with my friends 98

[Figure 16] N-Gram data for play with 99

[Figure 17] Raw data of enter a company in written corpus 100

[Figure 18] Raw data of enter a company in spoken corpus 100

[Figure 19] N-Gram data for enter a company 101

[Figure 20] Raw data of anyway in written corpus 102

[Figure 21] Raw data of anyway in spoken corpus 103

[Figure 22] Raw data of for example in written corpus 103

[Figure 23] Raw data of for example in spoken corpus 104

[Figure 24] Raw data of and so on in spoken corpus 105

[Figure 25] Raw data of and so on in written corpus 105

LIST OF CHARTS

[Chart 1] Frequency of error categories 95

[Chart 2] Frequency of grammatical and lexical collocation errors 110

[Chart 3] Frequency of grammatical and lexical collocational errors 115

초록보기

The present study investigates corpora of spoken and written language and types of errors, including collocational errors, in the corpora. This study involves two corpora, consisting of speaking and writing samples, which were collected from 134 Korean university students through a 10-minute one-to-one base interview and an in-class free composition. The corpora of written and spoken language were compared and contrasted with a corpus linguistics tool and examined for error analysis, using a qualitative approach. Errors were identified and classified accordingly, based on a procedure of linguistic taxonomy adopted from Duly and Burt (1982). The study identified a total of 30,555 tokens in the written corpus and a total of 33,140 tokens in the spoken corpus. In terms of word types, the written corpus yielded 3,004 types of words, and the spoken corpus provided 2,342 types of words. However, in examining the frequency of all the individual words that made up the written and spoken corpora of the participants, it was discovered that almost 90% of the word families in the corpora belonged to the first 1,000 most frequent English words.

With respect to error analysis, in the written corpus, misformation was the most frequent type of error, followed by omission and addition. In contrast, in the spoken corpus, omission was the most frequent type of error, with misformation in second place and addition in third. Even though the written and spoken corpora revealed different types of errors, use of article, use of preposition, use of tense, and use of plural maker -s were the most frequent and problematic areas, both in the written and spoken corpora. In terms of collocational errors, G8-D (verb + preposition + object) and L1 (verb + noun/pronoun) were the most frequent types of collocation errors in both the written and spoken corpora. Some implications are drawn concerning types of errors, including collocational errors, with respect to improving language teaching.

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