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Title page

Contents

Abstract 5

Country abbreviations and regional classification 15

Terms and abbreviations 16

Executive Summary 18

Resume 38

1. Introduction 63

1.1. Background and objective of the study 63

1.2. Outline of the study 66

1.3. Major definitions and methodology of the study 68

1.3.1. Parcel delivery services and parcel delivery service providers 68

1.3.2. E-commerce, e-retailers and consumers 70

1.3.3. The e-commerce supply chain 71

1.3.4. Overview on the methodology of the study 75

2. E-commerce in Europe 80

2.1. Online sales 80

2.1.1. Domestic and cross-border B2C e-commerce is growing at significant rates in all Member States 80

2.1.2. Growing share of enterprises provide web sales 83

2.1.3. The share of retailers with B2C web sales varies among Member States 84

2.1.4. Small enterprises are more active in B2C web sales 85

2.1.5. Most e-retailers are very small companies with revenues below EUR 100,000 85

2.1.6. Online marketplaces provide an important sales channel particularly for small and micro e-retailers 86

2.2. Cross-border online sales 88

2.2.1. More than 40% of enterprises with web sales sell across borders 88

2.2.2. Enterprises in small Member States are more active in cross-border sales than companies in large Member States 89

2.2.3. The majority of enterprises with web sales do not follow a dedicated internationalisation strategy 90

2.3. Opportunities and challenges in cross-border e-commerce 91

2.3.1. Reach more customers due to international expansion and reduce dependency on the domestic market 91

2.3.2. Fraud and differences in national regulations are more important barriers for cross-border sales to other EU Member States than transport & delivery costs 93

2.3.3. Expanding internationally requires significant financial, legal, technical and operational capacities 94

2.3.4. International online marketplaces can promote internationalisation of small e-retailers 97

2.4. Conclusions 102

3. Delivery services in Europe 104

3.1. Introduction 104

3.2. Delivery markets in Europe 106

3.2.1. B2C e-commerce drives growth in European parcel markets 106

3.2.2. B2C cross-border deliveries come from the largest e-commerce markets 111

3.2.3. Available statistical information underestimates cross-border streams 113

3.2.4. E-commerce parcels are outside the scope of USO in many Member States 115

3.3. Carriers and services in the European B2C delivery markets 124

3.3.1. Cross-border delivery services consist of three segments 124

3.3.2. Even small e-retailers may benefit from business tariffs and letter services provide a low-cost alternative for cross-border parcels 125

3.3.3. USPs are important B2C players, particularly for cross-border deliveries 130

3.3.4. International integrators target the high value e-commerce segment 137

3.3.5. Pan-European road-based networks expand into B2C delivery 140

3.3.6. Domestic operators expand their activities to neighbouring countries 150

3.3.7. Carriers put significant efforts to improve delivery options in B2C delivery 153

3.4. Future trends in B2C delivery services 160

3.4.1. Growing e-commerce drives innovation in the delivery industry 160

3.4.2. The 'backbone' of parcel logistics is under transformation 162

3.4.3. Last mile delivery will become more diverse particularly in urban areas 168

3.4.4. Technology transforms networks and delivery services 175

3.4.5. Global standards are a useful tool to facilitate interoperability between all stakeholders in the e-commerce supply chain 180

3.5. Conclusions 182

4. Consumers' experiences 188

4.1. Introduction 188

4.2. Online shopping intensity and preferences across Europe 190

4.2.1. The share of online shoppers is continuously growing 190

4.2.2. Offline shoppers do not trust online shopping 193

4.2.3. The majority of consumers still shop domestically or in neighbouring countries 195

4.3. Service quality of cross-border and domestic deliveries 203

4.3.1. Consumers' value each aspect of the delivery process as equally important 205

4.3.2. Perceived service quality for domestic and intra-EU purchases is superior compared to cross-border purchases from the rest of the world 206

4.3.3. Online shoppers are not satisfied with the e-retailers' offer on delivery time options 216

4.3.4. Online shoppers are often not happy with e-retailers' return policy 219

4.3.5. Online shoppers are very satisfied with carriers' delivery quality for intra-EU online purchases 221

4.4. Complaints handling and dispute resolution 226

4.5. Conclusions 229

5. E-retailers' experiences 233

5.1. E-retailers' experiences in cross-border sales 233

5.2. Managing cross-border deliveries 235

5.3. Managing cross-border returns 243

5.4. E-retailers face different choices for delivery in different Member States 248

5.4.1. WIK organised national stakeholder workshops in six Member States 248

5.4.2. Barriers for e-commerce activities vary among Member States 250

5.4.3. The performance of domestic and export parcel markets has improved 252

5.4.4. Cross-border delivery services are not considered as a significant barrier for the growth of e-commerce exports 254

5.4.5. E-retailers' opportunities to sell cross-border depend on characteristics of the national e-commerce ecosystems 257

5.5. Conclusions 259

6. E-commerce with non-EU countries 262

6.1. The rise of postal imports from Asia 262

6.2. The role of postal service providers for extra-EU imports 264

6.3. Universal Postal Union 267

6.3.1. Overview of the UPU 267

6.3.2. Transformation of the international postal services market 268

6.3.3. Public policy issues presented by the UPU 270

6.4. Terminal dues 271

6.5. Prospects for reform of the UPU 278

6.5.1. UPU reform initiatives prior to the 2016 Istanbul Congress 278

6.5.2. The 2016 Istanbul Congress: Integrated Product Plan and Single Council 282

6.5.3. US policy initiatives on UPU reform, August-October 2018 284

6.5.4. UPU response to US policy initiatives on UPU reform 288

6.5.5. Implications of US initiatives for the European Union 289

6.6. Customs and taxes 291

6.7. Conclusions 296

7. Developments of employment in the delivery sector 300

7.1. Overall sector employment 300

7.2. Development of employment relationships 308

7.2.1. Wages 308

7.2.2. Flexibility in working hours 316

7.2.3. Subcontracting 319

7.3. Future trends in labour markets 324

7.4. The role of social partners and social dialogue in the parcel sector 327

7.5. Conclusions 332

8. Environmental aspects of delivery services 335

8.1. Negative environmental effects of parcel delivery services 335

8.2. Last-mile delivery contributes to congestion and air pollution 338

8.3. Carbon offsetting 345

8.4. Conclusions 346

9. Overall conclusions and recommendations 349

9.1. E-commerce, delivery services and the Single Market: A Success Story 349

9.2. There is much variation in the state of e-commerce and delivery markets among Member States 350

9.3. Emerging co-operation among carriers and e-retailers 355

9.4. Service improvements and more transparency in cross-border delivery markets 357

9.5. Effective management of returns remains a common challenge for e-retailers and carriers in the EU 359

9.6. Parcel operators face different postal regulatory frameworks in different Member States 360

9.7. EU and Member States should ensure a level playing field for e-commerce imports 363

9.8. Subcontracting is an issue in the delivery industry 365

9.9. Environmental regulation increasingly affects the provision of delivery services 366

Tables

Table 1. TOP 3 countries retailers sell to (2014) 97

Table 2. TOP 3 e-commerce websites 99

Table 3. Country of origin of the most recent cross-border purchase 112

Table 4. Weight limits for cross-border parcels within USO 116

Table 5. Tracking as a feature of universal service parcels 116

Table 6. Overview on changes of collection and delivery frequency 117

Table 7. Criteria used to distinguish express delivery services from universal services 118

Table 8. Regulation of complaint handling procedures in the MS 119

Table 9. Authorisation for cross-border parcel service providers 120

Table 10. Parcel delivery providers contributing to NRA funding 121

Table 11. Compensation funds 122

Table 12. 'Open networks' for delivery solutions: Pros and cons 179

Table 13. Sample sizes by country 190

Table 14. WIK Consumer Survey: Who purchases where? 198

Table 15. Service quality dimensions and delivery elements 205

Table 16. E-retailers' access to (cross-border) delivery services 242

Table 17. Equivalent domestic postage v. terminal dues - documents, 2018 276

Table 18. Equivalent domestic postage v. terminal dues - small packets, 2018 277

Table 19. Overview on import duties for low-value consignments 2018 and 2021 293

Table 20. Overview on customs declaration procedures for low-value consignments 2018 and 2021 295

Table 21. Customs clearance of items under VAT de-minimis for non-USPs 295

Table 22. Development of employment by USP (2013-2017) 301

Table 23. Development of employment in postal and courier activities (2013-2017) 305

Table 24. Nominal levels of statutory minimum wage applicable in the EU MS in 2018 - Ranking 314

Table 25. Collective bargaining coverage, unionisation, principal level of collective bargaining - overview per country 329

Table 26. Local, regional and global effects of delivery air pollutants 336

Table 27. WIK Delivery Performance Index: Detailed results by country 354

Figures

Figure 1. An e-retailer's stylized supply chain 71

Figure 2. E-commerce fulfilment: Inbound and outbound logistics 73

Figure 3. E-commerce fulfilment: Reverse logistics (returns) 74

Figure 4. Methodology: Seven pillars of research 75

Figure 5. Trends in global e-commerce revenues 80

Figure 6. State and developments in the European e-commerce markets 82

Figure 7. Web sales of enterprises (2017) 83

Figure 8. B2C web sales of enterprises in retail trade (2018) 84

Figure 9. Enterprises with web sales: Company size amd B2C web sales (EU-28, 2017) 85

Figure 10. Enterprises with B2C web sales and the use of online marketplaces (EU-28, 2017) 86

Figure 11. Enterprises with cross-border web sales 88

Figure 12. Share of enterprises with web sales to other countries (2017) 89

Figure 13. Share of revenues from cross-border sales to other EU MS (EU-28, 2016) 91

Figure 14. Barriers for developing cross-border sales to other EU MS (EU-28, 2014 and 2016) 93

Figure 15. E-retailers' capacity and competencies in online sales 96

Figure 16. China e-retailers' share of European Amazon marketplaces (2018) 101

Figure 17. Cross-border outbound logistics (exports) 104

Figure 18. Annual revenues in the European parcel market 107

Figure 19. Structure of the European parcel and express market by country (2017) 108

Figure 20. Parcels per capita (2017) and average growth rates 109

Figure 21. Number of operators contributing to NRA funding per country 121

Figure 22. Number of carriers contributing to compensation fund other than USP 122

Figure 23. Stylized segmentation of cross-border parcel delivery services and developments 124

Figure 24. Revenues per parcel and list prices for single-piece parcels (2017) 126

Figure 25. Example: Volume discounts for domestic and cross-border parcels (Deutsche Post, 2019) 127

Figure 26. Revenues per parcel (index, 2015=100) 128

Figure 27. USPs' list prices for cross-border letter and parcel products (2017) 129

Figure 28. Carriers delivering the most recent domestic online purchase 131

Figure 29. Carriers delivering the most recent cross-border online purchase 132

Figure 30. Relevance of imports from China for USPs 132

Figure 31. Importance of USPs in B2C delivery services 134

Figure 32. The pan-European parcel delivery network of Geopost / La Poste (DPDgroup including the brands SEUR and Chronopost, 2018) 141

Figure 33. The pan-European parcel delivery network of Deutsche Post DHL (2018) 144

Figure 34. The pan-European parcel delivery network of General Logistics Systems B.V. (GLS, 2018) 146

Figure 35. The pan-European parcel delivery network of Hermes (2018) 148

Figure 36. Emergence of regional clusters in e-commerce and delivery 151

Figure 37. Stylized delivery value chain 162

Figure 38. From hub & spoke to point-to-point transport (web structure) 162

Figure 39. Elements of the WIK Consumer Survey 189

Figure 40. Share of individuals using internet in the last 12 months by age and population density of the residential area (EU-28, 2017) 191

Figure 41. Share of individuals using internet and buying online goods and services in the last 12 months (EU-28, 2017) 192

Figure 42. Share of individuals buying online goods and services (EU-28) 193

Figure 43. Relationship between ordering goods and services online and level of confidence (2016) 194

Figure 44. Reasons for not shopping online (EU-28) 195

Figure 45. Share of individuals purchasing online from abroad (EU-28) 196

Figure 46. Share of consumers purchasing cross-border within the last 12 month 197

Figure 47. Share of most recent cross-border purchases from EU MS by country 199

Figure 48. EU/EEA and China ratio - Most recent cross-border purchase 200

Figure 49. Reasons for refraining from cross-border purchase 201

Figure 50. Favourite product categories 202

Figure 51. Shopping frequency 203

Figure 52. The conceptual design of the ServQual model in the WIK consumer survey 204

Figure 53. Importance of each dimension 206

Figure 54. Overall service quality scores indices by country 208

Figure 55. Service quality score indices by service dimension 210

Figure 56. Standard delivery location 211

Figure 57. Service quality score indices for the dimension 'Information on the delivery and return conditions before purchase' by item 213

Figure 58. Delivery charges for the most recent domestic and cross-border online purchases 215

Figure 59. Expectations of online shoppers on delivey and return charges 215

Figure 60. Service quality score indices for the most recent domestic and cross-border online purchase for the dimension 'Delivery time' by country 218

Figure 61. Service quality score indices for the most recent online purchase for the dimension 'Management of returns' by country 220

Figure 62. Service quality score indices for the carriers' delivery quality of the most recent online purchases by country 222

Figure 63. Carrier of the most recent domestic and cross-border online purchase 223

Figure 64. Service quality score indices for the carriers' delivery quality of USPs compared to other carriers of the most recent online purchase (domestic and cross-border purchases combined) by country 224

Figure 65. Service quality score indices for the carriers' delivery quality of USPs compared to other carriers of the most recent cross-border online purchase by country 224

Figure 66. Carrier of the most recent cross-border online purchase 225

Figure 67. Perceived delivery service quality score between urban and suburban/rural areas 226

Figure 68. Problems that occured in the last 12 months 227

Figure 69. Addressees of potential complaints 228

Figure 70. Complaints procedure applied by online shoppers 229

Figure 71. Difficulties faced by enterprises with web sales to other EU MS by country size (2017, EU-28) 233

Figure 72. Difficulties faced by retailers with web sales to other EU MS (2017, EU-28) 234

Figure 73. Function of a delivery management tool 237

Figure 74. Fulfilment service provider (3PL) 239

Figure 75. Reverse logistics services 245

Figure 76. Total number of stakeholders involved per category 249

Figure 77. E-commerce in the workshop countries (% of individuals with online purchases in the last 12 months, 2017) 250

Figure 78. Domestic and cross-border purchases (2017) 250

Figure 79. Cross-border delivery services and e-commerce exports 254

Figure 80. Trends in global letter mail streams (UPU) 262

Figure 81. Location of the seller from the most recent cross-border purchase 263

Figure 82. Cross-border deliveries by type of operator 264

Figure 83. Terminal dues and domestic postage for small packets from China (2018) 274

Figure 84. Low-value items imported to the EU from non-EU countries 292

Figure 85. Development of employment by USP (2013-2017) 302

Figure 86. Percentage of delivery staff at USPs (2016) 304

Figure 87. Share of postal and courier sector employment by country (2017, EU-28) 304

Figure 88. Development of employment in postal and courier activities (CAGR 2013-2017) 306

Figure 89. Payments for agency workers in the postal and courier sector in million Euro (2012-2016) 310

Figure 90. Postal and courier activities: Wages and salaries in million Euro 311

Figure 91. Examples of remuneration schemes in parcel delivery 312

Figure 92. Monthly minimum wage by country (EU-28, 2016) 315

Figure 93. Share of part-time workers at USPs (2016) 317

Figure 94. Segments of flexibility in parcel delivery 318

Figure 95. Stylized subcontracting chain in the parcels industry 322

Figure 96. Platform functions as intermediary - E-retailer and deliverer have no contract 325

Figure 97. Collective bargaining coverage and unionisation in EU-28/EEA 328

Figure 98. Level of collective bargaining in EU-28/EEA 329

Figure 99. WIK Delivery Performance Index - Criteria and indicators 352

Figure 100. WIK Delivery Performance Index: Total index score by country 353

Case studies

Case study 1. Amazon marketplaces in Europe and the role of Chinese e-retailers 101

Case study 2. Contribution to compensation fund by express carriers in Italy 123

Case study 3. IPC Interconnect programme 136

Case study 4. Delivery location in foreign countries to facilitate e-commerce imports 157

Case study 5. Amazon Logistics in the United States 165

Case study 6. Picnic - An innovative start-up to deliver groceries 171

Case study 7. DHL Express cooperates with You2You in Paris 172

Case study 8. DHL eCommerce & DHL Parcel Metro 173

Case study 9. Amazon Logistics & Amazon Flex & Amazon Delivery Service Partner Initiative 174

Case study 10. UPS' usage of Artifactial Intelligence and Big Data 177

Case study 11. Delivery management platforms for domestic and international deliveries: Examples Packlink (ES), Boxtal (FR), Shipcloud (DE), SendCloud (NL), Sendit (PL), ParcelHero (UK) 238

Case study 12. Ebay Germany launches Ebay Fulfilment and Ebay Shipping service for sellers 240

Case study 13. Fulfilment and delivery services by online marketplaces: Pan-European FBA by Amazon (Fulfilment by Amazon) 241

Case study 14. Requirements on return policies of online marketplaces for cross-border e-commerce (Amazon marketplace) 244

Case study 15. Examples for a shipping platform for international returns: ReBound Returns and ZigZag 247

Case study 16. Fulfilment house fraud 293

Case study 17. Electronic customs procedures under the UCC 296

Case study 18. Two-tiered system in Germany 309

Case study 19. Remuneration of parcel deliverers in the Netherlands 313

Case study 20. Full flexibility by zero-hour contracts in the UK 319

Case study 21. Subcontracted self-employed deliverers in the gig economy - Deliveroo 321

Case study 22. Special case of limited subcontracting in France 324

Case study 23. Parcify (former: Bringr) - Delivery app by Bpost 327

Case study 24. Stuart.com - "The responsible platform" 327

Case study 25. StreetScooter (DPDHL) 340

Case study 26. VEDUR (CTT) 340

Case study 27. Txita (Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain) 342

Case study 28. Urban Micro Hubs (UPS) 343

Case study 29. Eco-Driving (bpost) 344

Case study 30. Correio Verde (CTT) 346

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