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Title page 1

Contents 5

Foreword 4

Executive summary 8

1. Korea's compact, connected and transit-oriented development policies 11

Korea's demographic trends and their impacts on urban form 12

Key challenges for Korea's urban development and transport systems 16

Towards a compact and connected strategy for Korea: policy assessment 23

Areas of opportunity for compact and connected cities in Korea 43

References 46

Notes 50

2. Korea's population distribution and regional hubs 53

Introduction 54

Korea's settlements and their reachability 54

Key facts about the spatial distribution of population and service provision in Korea 59

Identifying regional hubs to support rebalancing policies 74

Transport connectivity and accessibility in regional hubs 79

Conclusion 91

References 92

Notes 92

Annex 2.A. Data sources 94

Annex 2.B. Additional tables and figures 97

3. International experience on compact and connected development 102

Drawing lessons from international experience on compact and connected development 103

A review of compact and connected development in OECD countries 104

References 122

Notes 123

4. Toward compact and connected urban development in Korea - recommendations 125

Recommendations toward compact and connected development in Korea 126

References 135

Tables 6

Table 1.1. Trips forecast by purpose and mode in Korea 21

Table 1.2. Downtown Cohesion Zones projects to revitalise central areas of cities 33

Table 2.1. Average population counts by settlement type 55

Table 2.2. Degree of urbanisation level 1 and level 2 56

Table 2.3. Level 2: Population thresholds for different types of settlements 56

Table 2.4. Absolute and relative population growth of largest urban centres 69

Table 2.5. Education hubs, healthcare hubs, commercial hubs, leisure hubs, and general hubs 75

Table 3.1. Pillars for building transit-oriented communities in the Metro Vancouver region 115

Table 4.1. Summary of lessons for Korea from international experience on improving compact andconnected development 132

Figures 5

Figure 1.1. Average distance of commuting to the core of the metropolitan area. 14

Figure 1.2. Population trends and forecasts for Korea and the world 15

Figure 1.3. Rate of commuting to metropolitan areas from neighbouring towns and townships in Korea 17

Figure 1.4. The private car is the major mode of transport used in all metropolitan areas, 2021 18

Figure 1.5. The elderly mostly walk to their destination in urban areas 19

Figure 1.6. Car users have greater access to jobs accessible to working age population than public transport users in the SMA 19

Figure 1.7. Korea's innovation cities 28

Figure 1.8. Korea's four special zones for balanced regional development 32

Figure 1.9. Daegu has a lower economic growth rate than the national average 40

Figure 2.1. Seoul: Settlements, FUAs and administrative boundaries 57

Figure 2.2. Settlement typology in Korea regarding reachability 58

Figure 2.3. Population by the degree of urbanisation level 1 60

Figure 2.4. Share of towns and villages with access to an urban centre (population-weighted) 61

Figure 2.5. Share of people living in urban centres or in smaller settlements with access to an urban centre 62

Figure 2.6. Zipf's law, estimated for the sample countries with the largest number of urban centres 63

Figure 2.7. Share of people living in the largest urban centre 64

Figure 2.8. Share of people living in the largest urban centre among the people living in urban centres 65

Figure 2.9. Population change between 2005 and 2020 by reachability category 66

Figure 2.10. Annual population growth rate in Korea by period and settlement type 67

Figure 2.11. Annual population growth rate 2005-2020 by country and settlement size 68

Figure 2.12. Service completeness index: At least one pharmacy, school, bank, hospital, HEI 70

Figure 2.13. Additional number of schools by reachability 73

Figure 2.14. Additional number of pharmacies by reachability 73

Figure 2.15. Additional number of banks by reachability 74

Figure 2.16. Geographic distribution of service hubs 77

Figure 2.17. Geographic distribution of regional centres 78

Figure 2.18. Geographic distribution of the resulting 37 regional hubs 79

Figure 2.19. Walking time to pharmacies in Suncheon 81

Figure 2.20. Total and above 65 population distribution within Suncheon 82

Figure 2.21. Train stations serving inter-regional trains in regional hubs 83

Figure 2.22. Share of people that can walk to a train station in less than 15 minutes 84

Figure 2.23. Share of people with 15 minutes walking access to different services 85

Figure 2.24. Accessibility to childcare for children versus the total population in regional hubs 87

Figure 2.25. Accessibility to pharmacies for total versus above 65 population in regional hubs 89

Figure 2.26. Accessibility to doctors for total versus above 65 population in regional hubs 90

Figure 3.1. Hornsby TOD rezoning, Greater Sydney (NSW) 105

Figure 3.2. Grand Paris station neighbourhoods 108

Figure 3.3. Toyama's organisation of a compact city and its public transport system 111

Figure 3.4. Inlet Centre Station TOD area in Greater Vancouver 114

Figure 3.5. Greater Copenhagen - the Finger Plan area coverage 117

Figure 3.6. Cork City concept plan for 2040 based on transport-oriented development 120

Boxes 7

Box 1.1. Korea's policies to address declining birth rates 16

Box 1.2. Dealing with over-concentration in the Seoul Metropolitan Area through new towns development 24

Box 1.3. Past policies to achieve a balanced regional development in Korea 26

Box 1.4. OECD recommendations on providing affordable housing while ensuring compact urban development 34

Box 1.5. OECD recommendations for integrating land-use policy with transport policy through a transit-oriented development in Korea 36

Box 1.6. From car dependence to transit-oriented - the case of Songdo City 37

Box 2.1. Population grids and the degree of urbanisation 56

Box 2.2. Different ways to define Seoul 57

Box 2.3. Korean urban centres follow Zipf's law 63

Box 2.4. Predicting the number of service locations in settlements 72

Box 2.5. Service provision institutions and location decision criteria in Korea 80

Box 4.1. Urban-rural partnerships in Poland 128

Box 4.2. The experience of the STRING Megaregion on improving connectivity via transport 129

Box 4.3. Enhancing community participation in decision-making through partnership networks - Ireland 134

Annex Tables 7

Annex Table 2.A.1. Population data sources by country 94

Annex Table 2.A.2. Service definitions and country coverage 95

Annex Table 2.A.3. Service data sources by country 95

Annex Table 2.B.1. Population count of largest urban centres 97

Annex Table 2.B.2. Median service location counts by service type and settlement size 99

Annex Table 2.B.3. Regional hubs by TL3 region 101

Annex Figures 6

Annex Figure 2.B.1. Share of people living in towns and villages among those not living in urbancentres 97

Annex Figure 2.B.2. Population change between 2005 and 2020 in regional centres 98

Annex Figure 2.B.3. Annual population growth rate by period and type: Korea vs. average 99

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