Title page 1

Contents 8

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 6

Executive summary 12

1. Introduction 14

1.1. Gender equality in a changing world: Meeting commitments and moving forward 15

1.2. Report findings and recommendations 17

1.2.1. Gender equality in educational outcomes remains elusive (Chapter 4) 17

1.2.2. Gender gaps in paid and unpaid work persist (Chapter 5) 18

1.2.3. Women still lag behind men in reaching leadership roles (Chapter 6) 22

1.2.4. Health and healthcare access is gendered (Chapter 7) 23

1.2.5. Gender-based violence and violence against women remains pervasive (Chapter 8) 25

1.2.6. Looking ahead: The green transition and the digital transformation present challenges and opportunities for gender equality (Chapter 9) 27

1.2.7. Gender mainstreaming and institutional mechanisms to support policy combinations that advance gender equality 28

1.3. A strong foundation: Building on existing Directives and Recommendations 30

1.4. Guidance for readers 31

References 33

2. Tools for building policy combinations to advance gender equality 35

2.1. What is gender mainstreaming? 36

2.1.1. Gender impact assessments 37

2.1.2. Gender budgeting 39

2.1.3. Strong legal foundation 40

2.1.4. Whole-of-government strategic planning 40

2.1.5. Robust and effective co-ordination mechanisms 40

2.1.6. Adequate resources and capacities 41

2.1.7. Stakeholder engagement 41

2.1.8. High-quality gender-sensitive data and evidence 41

2.1.9. Comprehensive monitoring and evaluation with a gender lens 43

2.2. In focus: Strategic planning as a tool for designing policy combinations 44

2.2.1. Implementing, designing and evaluating gender equality strategies 45

2.2.2. Sectoral plans: Gender equality considerations are rarely systematically embedded into national strategic or sectoral plans 52

2.3. In focus: Co-ordinating gender equality policy combinations 55

2.3.1. Horizontal co-ordination: Most EU and OECD countries have a formal co-ordination system for gender-related policies and programmes 56

2.3.2. Vertical co-ordination: Many countries use formal systems to co-ordinate gender equality priorities and policies between national and subnational governments 57

References 61

Annex 2.A. List of gender equality strategies in EU and OECD countries 64

3. Conceptual framework for promoting gender equality through policy combinations 66

3.1. Priority consideration 1: Defining what gender equality progress looks like 68

3.2. Priority consideration 2: Clarifying scope and sequencing 68

3.3. Priority consideration 3: Identifying the range of cross-portfolio policy and programme combinations 69

3.4. Priority consideration 4: Establishing the state and nature of (intersectional) gender equality through a gender audit 69

3.5. Priority consideration 5: Understanding gender equality impacts 70

3.6. Priority consideration 6: Interpreting and reporting results and using assessments to inform future strategies 72

References 74

4. Gender gaps in educational attainment and outcomes remain 75

4.1. Background: Gender gaps in key outcomes in educational attainment and skills 77

4.1.1. Childhood and youth: Gender stereotypes and norms start exerting an influence early 77

4.1.2. Young adulthood: Gender norms and stereotypes translate into gendered career paths and life choices 82

4.1.3. Middle and older adulthood: Gender gaps in adult skills and lifelong learning 88

4.2. Policy combinations to advance gender equality in educational attainment and skills 91

4.2.1. Key policy actions across EU and OECD countries 92

4.2.2. Country case studies of key policy combinations in EU and OECD countries 95

References 97

Annex 4.A. List of figures in Online Annex 104

Notes 104

5. Persistent gender gaps in paid and unpaid work 105

5.1. Background: Gender gaps in key outcomes in paid and unpaid work 106

5.1.1. Childhood and youth: Girls do more unpaid work than boys 107

5.1.2. Early and middle adulthood: Balancing work and family life creates challenges 107

5.1.3. Later and older adulthood: Gendered labour supply and retirement patterns 128

5.2. Policy combinations to advance gender equality in paid and unpaid work 133

5.2.1. Key policy actions across EU and OECD countries 136

5.2.2. Country case studies of key policy combinations in EU and OECD countries 141

References 147

Annex 5.A. List of figures in Online Annex 162

Notes 163

6. Women still lag behind men in reaching leadership roles 164

6.1. Background: Gender gaps in key outcomes in leadership and representation 166

6.1.1. Childhood and youth: Girls are less likely to aspire to and expect to work in leadership positions than boys 166

6.1.2. Adulthood: Women face considerable barriers to leadership 167

6.2. Policy combinations to advance gender equality in leadership and representation 179

6.2.1. Key policy actions across EU and OECD countries 182

6.2.2. Country case studies of key policy combinations in EU and OECD countries 185

References 186

Annex 6.A. List of figures in Online Annex 197

7. Gendered differences in health outcomes and healthcare access 198

7.1. Background: Gender gaps in key outcomes in health 202

7.1.1. Childhood and youth: Gender gaps in health outcomes start early 202

7.1.2. Adulthood: Women report higher unmet healthcare needs, but men have higher mortality rates 208

7.1.3. Later adulthood: Women live longer than men, but additional years are often in poor health 218

7.2. Policy combinations to advance gender equality in health 219

7.2.1. Key policy actions across EU and OECD countries 221

7.2.2/7.1.1. Country case studies of key policy combinations in EU and OECD countries 224

References 227

Annex 7.A. List of figures in Online Annex 235

Notes 235

8. Violence against women remains pervasive 236

8.1. Background: Key outcomes relating to gender-based violence 240

8.1.1. Childhood and adolescence: Child sexual abuse is devastatingly high, and particularly high amongst girls 240

8.1.2. Adulthood: Many women experience violence 243

8.1.3. Later life: Abuse of older people requires particular attention as populations age 252

8.2. Policy combinations to tackle gender-based violence 253

8.2.1. Key policy actions across EU and OECD countries 258

8.2.2. Country case studies of key policy combinations in EU and OECD countries 262

References 266

Annex 8.A. List of figures in Online Annex 273

9. Looking ahead: Gender, the green transition and the digital transformation 274

9.1. Background: Gender gaps in key outcomes in the green transition 276

9.1.1. Childhood and youth: Gender gaps in environmental competence, preferences, awareness and behaviours emerge early 276

9.1.2. Adulthood: Gender gaps on the green transition exist in the labour market, health, leadership and innovation 277

9.2. Background: Gender gaps in the digital transformation 284

9.2.1. Childhood and youth: Girls may be more negatively impacted by the digitalisation than boys 284

9.2.2. Adulthood: Digitalisation presents both opportunities and risks for gender equality 285

9.3. Policy combinations to advance gender equality in the green transition and the digital transformation 294

9.3.1. Key policy actions across EU and OECD countries 295

9.3.2. Country case studies of key policy combinations in EU and OECD countries 298

References 300

Annex 9.A. List of figures in Online Annex 312

Tables 11

Table 3.1. Key characteristics of a results framework 68

Table 3.2. Sample tool for assessing gender equality impacts of policy combinations 73

Table 4.1. Existing policy options to tackle gender segregation in fields of study (Outcome A) and gender gaps in lifelong learning and adult skills (Outcome B) 92

Table 5.1. Existing policy options to tackle gender gaps in paid and unpaid work (Outcome A), entrepreneurship (Outcome B), pay (Outcome C) and pension income (Outcome D) 136

Table 6.1. Existing policy options to close gender gaps in management and senior leadership in the public and private sector (Outcome A) and political representation (Outcome B) 182

Table 7.1. Men have higher age-standardised death rates than women for most causes of death 213

Table 7.2. Anxiety and depression are notably more prevalent among women than men 217

Table 7.3. Existing policy options to improve gender equality in physical and mental health (Outcome A) and reduce gender gaps in physical activity (Outcome B) 221

Table 8.1. Existing policy options to eradicate gender-based violence (Outcome A), eliminate workplace sexual harassment (Outcome B) and support victims/survivors (Outcome A and B) 258

Table 9.1. Existing policy options to promote gender equality in the green transition (Outcome A) and ensure gender equality throughout the digital transformation (Outcome B) 295

Figures 9

Figure 2.1. Requirements for gender impact assessments (GIAs) are most common for laws and regulations 38

Figure 2.2. Most countries have a strategy for the promotion of gender equality 45

Figure 2.3. The most common intersectional factor included in gender equality strategies is age 49

Figure 2.4. Countries most frequently include paid and unpaid work considerations in gender equality strategies, while other key issues may be overlooked 51

Figure 2.5. Gender mainstreaming in national strategic or sectoral plans remains limited 53

Figure 2.6. Gender mainstreaming is most common in national strategic and sectoral plans relating to human rights, international affairs and STEM 54

Figure 2.7. Formal co-ordination systems for gender-related policies and programmes are regularly applied in many EU and OECD countries 56

Figure 2.8. Vertical co-ordination of gender-related policies and programmes is reported in many EU and OECD countries 58

Figure 2.9. Few countries report gender mainstreaming by all or most subnational governments 60

Figure 3.1. Gender equality continuum 71

Figure 4.1. Boys tend to lag behind girls in reading, but girls tend to be behind boys in math 77

Figure 4.2. Gender gaps favouring boys in mathematics and science only emerge at the top of the test score distribution 78

Figure 4.3. Occupational segregation in career expectations among adolescents mirrors occupational segregation among adults in the labour market 81

Figure 4.4. Women are more likely to have completed a tertiary education than men 83

Figure 4.5. Gender segregation in fields of study persists 88

Figure 4.6. Gender gaps in numeracy scores favouring men increase across age groups, while gender gaps in literacy favouring women shrink 89

Figure 4.7. Women are more likely to report family reasons as a barrier to adult learning 90

Figure 5.1. Women participate in the labour market less than men 108

Figure 5.2. Children correspond to lower employment for women, but higher employment for men 109

Figure 5.3. Women tend to work part-time more than men, with parenthood driving larger gaps 111

Figure 5.4. Women are slightly more likely to work in temporary jobs than men 112

Figure 5.5. Women do almost twice as much unpaid work as men per day 113

Figure 5.6. Men are more likely to be self-employed and to have employees 119

Figure 5.7. Occupational segregation persists in EU and OECD countries 122

Figure 5.8. Gender wage gaps have steadily closed over time, but women continue to earn less 125

Figure 5.9. Gender gaps in labour supply remain among older workers 129

Figure 5.10. Older women experience negative labour supply effects due to caregiving for incapacitated relatives 130

Figure 5.11. Pension gaps persist in all EU and OECD countries 131

Figure 6.1. Teen boys are more likely than teen girls to expect to work in certain leadership positions 166

Figure 6.2. Only about one-third of managers are women in EU and OECD countries 168

Figure 6.3. Women are underrepresented among board members and CEOs 169

Figure 6.4. Public sector employment shows evidence of the leaky pipeline to management 170

Figure 6.5. Migrants and persons with disability are less likely to be managers, especially when they are women 171

Figure 6.6. Women are underrepresented across all levels of government in most EU and OECD countries 175

Figure 6.7. Many countries have only ever had women as leaders for a short period of time 176

Figure 7.1. At birth, gender gaps in healthy life years are smaller than gender gaps in life expectancy 200

Figure 7.2. Self-perceived health is lower among women than men 201

Figure 7.3. Mortality rates are higher among boys than girls, but self-perceived health is lower among girls than boys 203

Figure 7.4. Despite higher rates of participation in physical activity, boys are more likely to be overweight or obese than girls 204

Figure 7.5. Boys are more likely to die as a result of self-harm than girls 206

Figure 7.6. Anxiety, depression and eating disorders are more common among girls, while autism, ADHD and conduct disorders are more common among boys 207

Figure 7.7. Women are more likely to report unmet healthcare needs than men and are less likely to perceive that they have access to good quality and affordable healthcare 209

Figure 7.8. Women more often report arthritis and mental health conditions, while men lead in hypertension and cardiovascular and heart conditions 210

Figure 7.9. Men are more likely than women to die at all ages 212

Figure 7.10. Women are more likely to report mental distress than men 216

Figure 7.11. Factoring in the quality of additional life years reduces gender gaps in life expectancy at age 60 218

Figure 8.1. Girls are more likely to experience sexual and psychological abuse in childhood than boys 241

Figure 8.2. In Canada, Indigenous women are more likely than Indigenous men to report experiences of childhood sexual abuse 242

Figure 8.3. Over one in three ever-partnered women in the EU report having experienced intimate partner violence in their lives 243

Figure 8.4. Some people continue to believe intimate partner violence is acceptable 246

Figure 8.5. Women with disability are more likely to experience intimate partner violence than women without disability 247

Figure 8.6. Many women report violence from non-partner perpetrators 248

Figure 8.7. Experiences of sexual harassment at work are common for women 249

Figure 8.8. Women are more likely than men to avoid certain areas for fear of assault or harassment 251

Figure 8.9. Violence against women is cited as the top priority area for gender equality by over half of EU and OECD national governments 254

Figure 9.1. Women are more concerned about climate change than men 279

Figure 9.2. Women are underrepresented as leaders in politics around climate and the environment 283

Figure 9.3. Gender gaps in perceptions of the impacts of the digital transformation on jobs 287

Boxes 33

Box 1.1. 2024 OECD Questionnaire on Policy Combinations for Gender Equality 33

Box 2.1. Gender budgeting in Canada 39

Box 2.2. National government efforts to improve availability and accessibility of gender-disaggregated data 42

Box 2.3. International efforts to improve gender gender-disaggregated data and evidence 42

Box 2.4. Impact assessment, monitoring and evaluation 44

Box 2.5. Closing gender gaps and promoting horizontal co-ordination using dedicated gender equality strategies 46

Box 2.6. Closing gender gaps with the European Union Gender Equality Strategy 2020-25 47

Box 2.7. OECD Gender Equality Strategy 48

Box 2.8. Building intersectional perspectives into gender equality strategies 49

Box 2.9. Priority setting as seen in selected gender equality strategies 50

Box 2.10. Designing a good theory of change for gender equality 52

Box 2.11. Gender considerations in national strategic and sectoral plans 55

Box 2.12. Horizontal co-ordination of gender equality policies and programmes 57

Box 2.13. Vertical co-ordination of gender equality policies and programmes 59

Box 2.14. Good practice examples of gender mainstreaming at the subnational level 60

Box 3.1. Assessing effectiveness through randomised or quasi-random evaluation methods 70

Box 3.2. Ensuring adequate resources for assessing gender equality impacts 72

Box 4.1. Spotlight on intersectionality: Student skills and migrant status 78

Box 4.2. Spotlight on intersectionality: Ethnicity and race and educational attainment 84

Box 4.3. Higher levels of tertiary education have lower shares of women 87

Box 4.4. Women victims/survivors of violence may experience barriers to education 87

Box 4.5. Additional data sources on gender equality in educational attainment and skills 90

Box 4.6. Spotlight on intersectionality: People with disability 96

Box 5.1. Gender gaps in "earnings" start in childhood 107

Box 5.2. Spotlight on intersectionality: Women in non-metropolitan areas may experience greater barriers to labour force participation 109

Box 5.3. Spotlight on intersectionality: Migrant status and employment 110

Box 5.4. Looking beyond employment to unemployment 112

Box 5.5. Valuing unpaid work 114

Box 5.6. Sandwich caregiving 115

Box 5.7. Looking beyond income taxation to other forms of taxation 117

Box 5.8. Gender-based violence (GBV) may act as a barrier to employment and contribute to occupational segregation 118

Box 5.9. Women in men-dominated industries and occupations 123

Box 5.10. Care and domestic workers face low pay and poor working conditions 124

Box 5.11. Looking beyond earnings to income and wealth 127

Box 5.12. Spotlight on intersectionality: Disability and the gender wage gap 128

Box 5.13. Additional data sources on gender equality in paid and unpaid work 132

Box 5.14. EU Directives on Work-Life Balance and Pay Transparency 134

Box 5.15. Spotlights on intersectionality: Migrant women 143

Box 5.16. Time use surveys to measure gender gaps in paid and unpaid work 143

Box 5.17. Spotlights on intersectionality: Rural women entrepreneurs 144

Box 6.1. Girls and women are stereotypically represented, objectified and sexualised in the media 167

Box 6.2. Spotlight on intersectionality: Management, migrant status and disability status 171

Box 6.3. Justice systems face notable gender inequalities 173

Box 6.4. Glass cliffs: Women's leadership in times of crisis 174

Box 6.5. Spotlight on intersectionality: Political representation and race and ethnicity 175

Box 6.6. Additional data sources on women in leadership 179

Box 6.7. The EU Directive on "Women on Boards" 181

Box 6.8. Supporting women's representation in peacebuilding and the foreign service 186

Box 7.1. Spotlight on intersectionality: Self-perceived health and income 201

Box 7.2. Gender equality in future sports career expectations 205

Box 7.3. Are autism and ADHD underdiagnosed in girls and women? 208

Box 7.4. Spotlight on intersectionality: Health-reducing and -enhancing behaviours and income 215

Box 7.5. More data and research needed on occupational health and safety in women-dominated occupations and industries 215

Box 7.6. Spotlight on intersectionality: Mental health and race and ethnicity 218

Box 7.7. Additional data sources on gender equality in health 219

Box 7.8. Applying a life course approach to national women's health strategies 226

Box 8.1. Drivers of gender-based violence 238

Box 8.2. The prevalence of GBV is underreported and difficult to analyse 239

Box 8.3. Survey data measuring childhood maltreatment are limited 240

Box 8.4. Spotlight on intersectionality: Childhood maltreatment among underrepresented groups 242

Box 8.5. Cyber spaces: Cyberbullying is more common among girls than boys 243

Box 8.6. Men experience violence, including intimate partner violence (IPV) 244

Box 8.7. EU survey on Gender-Based Violence against Women and Other Forms of Inter-Personal Violence 245

Box 8.8. Spotlight on intersectionality: Intimate partner violence and disability 247

Box 8.9. Challenges comparing administrative data on GBV 248

Box 8.10. Defining sexual harassment at work 250

Box 8.11. Spotlight on intersectionality: Sense of safety and minority status in Canada and Australia 251

Box 8.12. Cyber spaces: Technology-facilitated gender-based violence 252

Box 8.13. Additional data sources on GBV and violence against women 253

Box 8.14. Tackling GBV: International and EU initiatives 255

Box 8.15. OECD research on integrated service delivery for victims/survivors 256

Box 8.16. Spotlight on intersectionality: Indigenous women, migrant women and women with disability 265

Box 9.1. Defining the green transition and the digital transformation 276

Box 9.2. Gendered impacts of the green transition in local economies 278

Box 9.3. Higher energy poverty among women could be amplified by climate change mitigation policies 280

Box 9.4. Spotlight on intersectionality: Air pollution and income 281

Box 9.5. Spotlight on intersectionality: Disasters may amplify disadvantage 281

Box 9.6. Platform workers 288

Box 9.7. Content creation may generate new opportunities, but may also replicate existing gaps 288

Box 9.8. Challenges and opportunities in the use of AI in the labour market 288

Box 9.9. Understanding the impacts of constant connectedness 290

Box 9.10. Are digital tools, including AI, set to (continue to) reduce the burden of unpaid work? 290

Box 9.11. Misinformation and gendered disinformation 291

Box 9.12. Additional data sources on gender equality in the green transition and the digital transformation 293

Annex Tables 11

Annex Table 2.A.1. Gender equality strategies exist in most EU and OECD countries 64

Annex Table 4.A.1. List of Chapter 4 Online Annex Figures 104

Annex Table 5.A.1. List of Chapter 5 Online Annex Figures 162

Annex Table 6.A.1. List of Chapter 6 Online Annex Figures 197

Annex Table 7.A.1. List of Chapter 7 Online Annex Figures 235

Annex Table 8.A.1. List of Chapter 8 Online Annex Figures 273

Annex Table 9.A.1. List of Chapter 9 Online Annex Figures 312