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Title page 1

Contents 7

Abstract 2

Executive summary 4

1. Introduction 13

1.1. Relevance and purpose of the study 13

1.2. Academic freedom and related concepts 13

1.3. Recent trends and reading guide 16

2. Methodology and resources used 17

2.1. Overview 17

3. Updated overview of state of academic freedom in EU Member States 19

3.1. Introduction 19

3.2. Data sources 19

3.3. Country data overviews 22

3.3.1. Updated 2025 scores and findings 22

3.3.2. Austria 24

3.3.3. Belgium 25

3.3.4. Bulgaria 25

3.3.5. Croatia 26

3.3.6. Cyprus 27

3.3.7. Czechia 27

3.3.8. Denmark 28

3.3.9. Estonia 29

3.3.10. Finland 29

3.3.11. France 30

3.3.12. Germany 31

3.3.13. Greece 32

3.3.14. Hungary 34

3.3.15. Ireland 35

3.3.16. Italy 35

3.3.17. Latvia 36

3.3.18. Lithuania 37

3.3.19. Luxembourg 38

3.3.20. Malta 38

3.3.21. Netherlands 39

3.3.22. Poland 40

3.3.23. Portugal 41

3.3.24. Romania 41

3.3.25. Slovakia 42

3.3.26. Slovenia 43

3.3.27. Spain 43

3.3.28. Sweden 44

3.4. Academic freedom trends in EU Member States 44

3.4.1. State of academic freedom in the EU according to the Academic Freedom Index: general score 44

3.4.2. State of academic freedom in the EU according to the Academic Freedom Index: five individual sub-indicators 45

3.5. Country-specific trends analysis 47

3.5.1. Introduction 47

3.5.2. Academic freedom - core dimensions and conditions 48

3.5.3. Six sources of threats to academic freedom 49

3.5.4. Objectives 50

3.6. Country-specific trends reports 51

3.6.1. Belgium 51

3.6.2. Finland 54

3.6.3. Italy 58

3.6.4. Poland 62

4. Thematic analysis of academic freedom trends in the EU 67

4.1. Introduction 67

4.2. Political polarisation and academic freedom 68

4.3. The decline in respect for academic freedom in the US and its potential consequences for the EU 69

4.3.1. Ending Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) policies and practices 70

4.3.2. Significant reduction in federal civil service capacity and cuts in government spending 70

4.3.3. Implementation of a conservative agenda 72

4.3.4. Possible impact on academic freedom in the EU 73

4.4. Academic-private sector collaboration as an aspect of the commercialisation of academia 74

4.4.1. A legal-conceptual analysis of academic freedom in the context of university-private sector collaborations 75

4.4.2. Which aspects of academic freedom may be affected? 76

4.4.3. Right-holders and duty-bearers 78

4.4.4. Permissible limits to academic freedom 79

4.4.5. Possible justifications of an interference 79

4.4.6. Possible positive obligations resting on the state 82

4.5. Foreign interference and academic freedom 82

4.5.1. Introduction 82

4.5.2. Conceptualisation of foreign interference 82

4.5.3. People's Republic of China entities as a possible threat to higher education institutions and academic freedom in Europe 84

4.5.4. European universities' involvement with entities from the PRC 88

4.5.5. Actions against foreign interference 90

5. Conclusions 95

6. Key findings and policy options 98

6.1. Key findings 98

6.2. Policy options 99

7. References 102

8. ANNEX 1: Methodology updated synthesis and four country case studies 113

Tables 11

Table 1. Overview of academic freedom monitor findings by country 23

Table 2. Austria: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 24

Table 3. Belgium: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 25

Table 4. Bulgaria: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 25

Table 5. Croatia: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 26

Table 6. Cyprus: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 27

Table 7. Czechia: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 27

Table 8. Denmark: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 28

Table 9. Estonia: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 29

Table 10. Finland: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 29

Table 11. France: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 30

Table 12. Germany: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 31

Table 13. Greece: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 32

Table 14. Hungary: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 34

Table 15. Ireland: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 35

Table 16. Italy: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 35

Table 17. Latvia: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 36

Table 18. Lithuania: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 37

Table 19. Luxembourg: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 38

Table 20. Malta: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 38

Table 21. Netherlands: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year, and 10 year comparisons) 39

Table 22. Poland: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 40

Table 23. Portugal: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 41

Table 24. Romania: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 41

Table 25. Slovakia: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 42

Table 26. Slovenia: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 43

Table 27. Spain: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 43

Table 28. Sweden: Academic Freedom Index (2024 scores with 1 year, 5 year and 10 year comparisons) 44

Table 29. Overview of EU Member States that showed a statistically significant decline in individual AFI sub-indicators over the past ten years (2014-2024) 46

Table 30. Overview of average AFI score for major regions in the world, including the European Union (comparison 2014-2024; based on V-Dem classifications) 46

Table 31. Key dimensions and patterns of foreign influence and foreign interference targeting higher education 84

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