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https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/how-is-israel-s-middle-class-faring_4750457e-en.html
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Title page 1
Contents 5
Foreword 4
Executive summary 8
1. Overview 9
1.1. Who is middle class in Israel? 10
1.1.1. The Israeli middle-income group has expanded since the global financial crisis, but it remains among the smallest across OECD countries 11
1.1.2. Young people have not equally benefited from the growing size of the middle class, and people with lower educational attainment... 11
1.2. Middle-class workers in Israel: trends in occupations and wages, sectoral shifts and persistent inequalities 12
1.2.1. Not for all groups does having a job provide equal access to the middle class 12
1.2.2. Israel has experienced strong growth in high-skilled employment, and a comparatively large share of middle-income workers works... 12
1.2.3. Female workers have experienced similar occupational advancement as male workers, but continue to have lower access to managerial roles 13
1.2.4. Non-Jewish workers struggle to move up the occupational ladder 13
1.2.5. Middle-income workers have shifted out of manufacturing and into public services 14
1.2.6. Wages have risen for middle-income workers, while the skill premium has shrunk 14
1.3. Consumption expenditures and savings patterns of the middle class in Israel 14
1.3.1. Consumption inequalities in Israel are relatively modest in international comparison and have declined over the last two decades 15
1.3.2. Households in Israel spend a growing share of their budget on core necessities, notably housing and food, while spending on leisure has plummeted 15
1.3.3. The savings rate has risen for most households in Israel, but low-income households and ethno-religious minorities struggle to make ends meet 15
References 16
Notes 16
2. Who is middle class in Israel? 18
2.1. The middle-income group: evolution and size in a comparative perspective 21
2.1.1. Israel's middle-income group has grown in the aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis, partially recovering the ground lost in the previous decades 21
2.1.2. Israel's middle-income group remains among the smallest across the OECD 21
2.2. The changing composition of the middle-income group in Israel 22
2.2.1. Younger generations have benefited from rising incomes, but still lost ground relative to older generations 22
2.2.2. People with lower educational attainment and ethno-religious minorities have struggled to reach the middle-income group 25
2.3. Main conclusions 28
References 29
Notes 29
3. Middle-class workers in Israel: trends in occupations and wages, sectoral shifts and persistent inequalities 31
3.1. Workers in different parts of the income distribution 34
3.1.1. Most workers access the middle- or high-income group, but some groups of workers lag behind 34
3.1.2. Women and young workers from low-income households are overrepresented among those who have joined the labour force 37
3.2. An occupational analysis of middle-income employment 39
3.2.1. Middle-income workers have experienced strong occupational advancement over the last 15 years 39
3.2.2. Female middle-income workers experience greater occupational polarisation than men, despite similar upskilling in recent years 41
3.2.3. Non-Jewish workers struggle to move up the occupational ladder 43
3.2.4. Middle-income workers have shifted out of manufacturing and into public services 44
3.3. Wages and skill premia for middle-income workers 46
3.3.1. Middle-income workers have benefitted from robust wage growth, while the skill premium in wages has shrunk 46
3.3.2. Wages of women and Arab Israelis lag behind, especially for high-skilled workers 48
3.4. Main conclusions 49
References 50
Annex 3.A. Further details on occupational categories and sectors 52
Annex 3.B. Further results on the skill wage premium 54
Notes 54
4. Consumption expenditures and savings patterns of the middle class in Israel 56
4.1. What are the patterns in overall consumption expenditures? 58
4.1.1. Israel has a more even consumption distribution than many OECD countries 58
4.1.2. Consumption inequalities in Israel have slightly narrowed, unlike in most OECD countries 59
4.2. How do households allocate their consumption expenditures? 61
4.2.1. Spending on core necessities of Israeli households is broadly in line with that of households in other OECD countries 61
4.2.2. Total household expenditure in Israel has shifted towards core necessities, while spending on leisure has plummeted 63
4.2.3. The overall price level is very high in Israel, and prices have risen particularly for core necessities, such as housing and food 64
4.2.4. The allocation of consumption expenditures varies across ethno-religious groups 66
4.3. How have savings evolved? 67
4.3.1. The savings rate increased for most Israeli households, except for those with lowest incomes 67
4.3.2. Savings rate differentials in Israel have a strong ethno-religious dimension 68
4.4. Main conclusions 69
References 70
Annex 4.A. Further details on consumption expenditure categories 72
Notes 72
Figure 2.1. Middle incomes have grown faster in Israel than in major OECD economies, and have been catching up with top incomes 20
Figure 2.2. The Israeli middle-income group has grown since the Global Financial Crisis after a long period of decline 21
Figure 2.3. The Israeli middle-income group is among the smallest across OECD countries 22
Figure 2.4. Younger generations have benefited from steep income trajectories in Israel, unlike in many other OECD economies 23
Figure 2.5. Young people's access to the middle-income group has stagnated 24
Figure 2.6. People without tertiary education have increasingly struggled to reach the middle-income group, especially among the young 25
Figure 2.7. Arab-Israelis and Haredim remain heavily underrepresented in the middle-income group, even if their relative income position improved 27
Figure 2.8. Haredi and Arab-Israeli people live in households with a greater number of children, and they are much younger on average 28
Figure 3.1. Middle-income people are much more likely to participate in the labour market than those on low incomes, particularly in Israel 33
Figure 3.2. Most workers reach the middle- or high-income group, but particularly workers from ethno-religious minorities lag behind 35
Figure 3.3. Ethno-religious minorities are less likely to access employment, partly due to educational attainment gaps 36
Figure 3.4. Employment has grown the most among low-income households, and especially for women and younger workers 38
Figure 3.5. Most middle-income workers are employed in middle- and high-skilled occupations 40
Figure 3.6. Middle-income workers in Israel are more likely to hold high-skilled jobs than their counterparts in other OECD countries 41
Figure 3.7. Despite recent upskilling, female middle-income workers remain overrepresented in low-skilled occupations 42
Figure 3.8. Non-Jewish workers are underrepresented in high-skilled occupations, and have exhibited lower occupational progression 43
Figure 3.9. Over one-in-three middle-income workers hold public-service jobs, while manufacturing has been in decline 45
Figure 3.10. Workers across income groups have benefitted from robust wage growth 46
Figure 3.11. The wage premium for high-skilled occupations has declined in Israel, but it is still larger than in most OECD countries 47
Figure 3.12. Women and non-Jewish workers earn less across occupations, but particularly in high-skilled roles 49
Figure 4.1. The middle class accounts for a relatively large share of consumption expenditures in Israel 59
Figure 4.2. Low- and lower middle-income households in Israel experienced a higher growth in consumption expenditures over the last 20 years 60
Figure 4.3. Unlike in Israel, consumption inequalities have grown in most OECD countries 61
Figure 4.4. Israeli households spend a smaller share of their consumption budget on core necessities than households in most other OECD countries 62
Figure 4.5. Israeli households spend a growing share of their budget on housing, but spending has increased also for healthcare, education and food 64
Figure 4.6. The prices of housing and food have soared 65
Figure 4.7. Israel has one of the highest price levels in the OECD, but price increases in the last two decades have been comparatively moderate 66
Figure 4.8. Arab-Israeli households spend relatively less on housing, while the Haredim spend more on education 67
Figure 4.9. Middle- and high-income households in Israel have been able to save a growing share of their income, while those in the bottom... 68
Figure 4.10. Arab-Israelis are heavily overrepresented among low-income households and strongly dissave on average 69
Boxes 10
Box 1.1. Defining "middle class" 10
Box 2.1. Living arrangements and age distribution of Israel's main ethno-religious groups 27
Box 3.1. Disparities in employment outcomes and educational attainment across Israel's main ethno-religious groups 35
Box 4.1. Income groups, data and samples 57
Box 4.2. Measuring consumption and savings and constructing expenditure categories 62
Annex Figure 3.B.1. Wage premium of each occupational group relative to workers in elementary occupations 54
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