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Title page 1

Contents 7

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 6

Executive summary 9

1. Trends and patterns in the mental health status of children, adolescents and young people 12

In Brief 13

Introduction 14

Many mental health conditions begin in childhood and adolescence 14

Mental distress is increasing amongst young people in most OECD countries 16

The COVID-19 crisis worsened youth mental health, but the declining trend started pre-pandemic 21

Trends in suicide deaths and intentional self-harm 23

Adolescents in their mid-to-late teens, and girls and young women, have poorer mental health 25

References 28

Annex 1.A. National data sources on youth mental health status 36

Annex 1.B. Questionnaires 38

2. New and old drivers of young people's mental health status 41

In Brief 42

Introduction 43

There are multiple, intersecting risk factors for young people's poor mental health 43

Scientific evidence and experts do not give one clear picture of the mental health risks of digital devices and digital media 45

Climate change and increased global conflicts are seen by experts as mental health risks, amplified by the contemporary information environment 54

Risk factors including socio-economic status and economic opportunity are not new, but may be growing, and interact with vulnerability... 55

Bullying, cyberbullying, schools and academic pressure can all worsen children and adolescent's mental health 57

Mental health risk factors differ by age and stage of young people 58

References 59

Notes 69

3. Responding to the youth mental health crisis 70

In Brief 71

Introduction 72

Supporting good mental health for young people requires a multi-sectoral approach 72

The response to increased demand for services should prioritise lower threshold, holistic support, with an emphasis on peer-to-peer services 73

Programmes to promote social and emotional learning and mental health literacy in schools should be part of building mental resilience 75

A growing number of policies targeting children and adolescent's online behaviours, but mental health impacts aren't yet clear 77

More and better data on the youth mental health crisis and its drivers is needed to guide policymaking 80

References 83

Tables 8

Table 2.1. Mental health risk factors by age 59

Figures 8

Figure 1.1. Expert assessment of trends in young people's mental health status over the past decade 13

Figure 1.2. Estimated Prevalence of Mental and Neurodevelopmental Conditions by Age Group, 2024 15

Figure 1.3. Average annual change in prevalence of poor mental health amongst young people across the past decade 17

Figure 1.4. Expert assessment of trends in young people's mental health status over the past decade 20

Figure 1.5. Relative level of youth mental distress over time in Canada, Korea, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United States 22

Figure 1.6. Deaths by suicide by age in OECD countries, 2001-2021 23

Figure 1.7. Youth suicide deaths in selected OECD countries, 2000-2022 24

Figure 1.8. Hospitalisations for self-harm for girls and boys age 0-17, 2015-2024 25

Figure 1.9. Percentage of girls and boys "feeling low" in 2022 and 2014 26

Figure 2.1. Expert-identified drivers of poor mental health amongst young people 42

Figure 2.2. Expert-identified drivers of poor mental health amongst young people 44

Figure 2.3. Adolescents' digital device use for leisure activities 45

Figure 2.4. Expert clinicians and policymakers' saw mixed impacts of "digitalisation" on young people's mental health 47

Figure 2.5. Problematic Social Media Use amongst 15-year-old boys and girls, 2018 and 2022 53

Figure 2.6. Cyberbullying and bullying have both increased in recent years, especially amongst younger adolescents 57

Figure 3.1. Expert-perspectives on effective ways to build mental health and well-being resilience amongst young people 71

Figure 3.2. Expert-perspectives on effective ways to build mental health and well-being resilience amongst young people 73

Figure 3.3. Expert-assessment of the level of mental health support in their country or region 74

Figure 3.4. Phone bans in schools and age-based social media limits in OECD countries 78

Figure 3.5. What "teens" (age 13-17) and parents in the United States say they think most negatively impacts teen mental health, 2024 82

Boxes 20

Box 1.1. OECD Semi-Structured Interviews with Clinical and Policy Experts on Young People's Mental Health, 2025 20

Box 2.1. Key terminology - "digitalisation", "digital media" and "screens" 46

Box 2.2. "Online harm" - do online spaces increase the risk of self-harm and suicidal behaviour? 51

Box 3.1. Holistic mental health support in Australia's headspace centres 75

Box 3.2. Teaching social and emotional learning - Zippy's Friends, This Is Me, and lessons from the OECD Survey on Social and Emotional Skills 76

Box 3.3. Enforceable online age limits in Australia and increased regulation of online content and platform design to protect minors in the EU 79

Box 3.4. What do young people say about their own mental health? 81

Annex Tables 8

Annex Table 1.A.1. Data sources for Figure 1.3. Average annual change in prevalence of poor mental health amongst young people across the past decade 36

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