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Title page 1

Contents 6

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Acronyms and Abbreviations 10

Executive Summary 13

Assessment and recommendations 18

1. The agricultural policy context 31

1.1. Context 32

1.1.1. General features of the economy 33

1.1.2. Political and institutional features 34

1.1.3. Characteristics of rural areas 35

1.2. Main features of the agricultural sector 36

1.2.1. The role of agriculture in the economy 36

1.2.2. Land use 37

1.2.3. Land ownership 38

1.2.4. Financial gaps and needs 40

1.3. Structural change in the agro-food sector 41

1.3.1. Evolution of farm holdings 41

1.3.2. Farm labour and income 44

1.3.3. Trends in production and yields 44

1.3.4. Trends in organic farming 46

1.4. Inclusiveness of the sector, including in relation to gender, youth, and indigenous peoples 47

1.4.1. Generational renewal 47

1.4.2. Gender 48

1.4.3. Migration 49

1.4.4. Minorities 49

1.5. Trade and participation in global value chains 50

1.5.1. Evolution of agro-food trade 50

1.5.2. Integration of the agro-food sector in international markets 55

1.6. Conclusions 58

References 59

Notes 63

2. Trends and evaluation of agricultural policies 65

2.1. Key policy developments before the accession to the European Union 66

2.1.1. Pre-accession reforms and instruments 66

2.1.2. Convergence with EU policies 67

2.2. Post-accession and adoption of the Common Agricultural Policy 68

2.2.1. The start of the CAP: The 2007-13 programming period 68

2.2.2. CAP 2014-22 in Romania: Main policy instruments and implementation choices 73

2.3. The CAP 2023-27 77

2.3.1. Overview of Romania's CAP Strategic Plan 77

2.3.2. Direct payments and sectoral interventions 79

2.3.3. Conditionalities 81

2.3.4. Eco-schemes 82

2.3.5. Rural development interventions 83

2.4. Other domestic policies 86

2.4.1. Strategic vision and major planning initiatives 86

2.4.2. The National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) 87

2.4.3. Support measures not financed by CAP funds 88

2.4.4. Policies related to agricultural land management 90

2.4.5. Tax incentives 91

2.5. Risk management and resilience policies 92

2.5.1. Main resilience policies 92

2.5.2. Risk management tools in agriculture 93

2.6. Trade policies affecting the agricultural sector 94

2.6.1. The EU trade policy framework 94

2.6.2. Policies at the national level 97

2.7. Evaluation of support to agriculture (PSE indicators) 99

2.7.1. Producer Support Estimate of the European Union 99

2.7.2. Budgetary support to agriculture in Romania 100

2.8. Conclusions 102

References 103

Notes 109

3. Natural resources management 112

3.1. Key environmental objectives and institutional framework of environmental regulations 113

3.1.1. Agri-environmental context 113

3.1.2. Governance of agriculture and forest environmental sustainability 115

3.1.3. Key EU and domestic environmental legislation and strategies 116

3.1.4. Policy instruments to promote environmental sustainability in the CAP 2014-22 119

3.1.5. The new green architecture of the CAP 2023-27 123

3.2. Management of natural resources and ecosystems 126

3.2.1. Biodiversity and ecosystems, including forest biodiversity and protected areas 126

3.2.2. Organic farming 128

3.2.3. Soil health 129

3.2.4. Fertiliser input and nutrient balances 131

3.2.5. Ammonia emissions 132

3.2.6. Plant pests and diseases control 133

3.3. Water management policies 134

3.3.1. Water availability for agriculture 134

3.3.2. Water quality and agriculture 134

3.3.3. Water abstractions for agriculture 135

3.4. Climate change mitigation efforts 136

3.4.1. GHG emissions from agriculture 136

3.4.2. Climate mitigation measures in agriculture 138

3.5. Climate change impacts and adaptation efforts 139

3.5.1. Climate change impacts on Romanian agriculture 139

3.5.2. Adaptation strategies 140

3.6. Forest lost/deforestation situation and policies 140

3.7. Moving towards an energy-efficient and low-carbon economy 141

3.8. Conclusions 141

References 143

Notes 146

4. Agriculture innovation system 147

4.1. Introduction 148

4.2. General innovation system 149

4.2.1. Performance of the Romanian innovation system 149

4.2.2. Policy approach and framework: National and regional strategies 149

4.3. Actors, institutions, and governance of the Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation System (AKIS) 151

4.3.1. Main actors of the AKIS and their role in agricultural innovation 152

4.3.2. Main public authorities 153

4.3.3. Agricultural research 155

4.3.4. Agricultural education 156

4.3.5. Farm advisory services 157

4.3.6. Funding of the AKIS 160

4.4. Policies facilitating innovation and knowledge transfer 164

4.4.1. Public and private investments in R&D 164

4.4.2. International co-operation in agricultural R&D and partnerships for agricultural innovation 170

4.4.3. Digitisation, connectivity, deployment and use of digital technologies 171

4.4.4. Protection of intellectual property rights 173

4.4.5. Education and training 175

4.5. Adoption of innovations and R&D performance 177

4.5.1. Outputs of R&D investment in agro-food science (publications and patents) 177

4.5.2. Innovation for sustainability (successful cases of innovation for environmental sustainability) 178

4.6. Conclusions 180

References 181

Notes 185

5. Food systems 187

5.1. General landscape of generic agricultural and livestock supply chain, including market concentration 188

5.1.1. Distribution of value added across the agro-food supply chain 188

5.1.2. Market concentration in processing and retail 189

5.1.3. Co-operation and other interventions to improve farmers' position in the value chain 190

5.1.4. Integration of the food industry into global value chains 192

5.1.5. Responsible Agricultural Supply Chains 193

5.2. General landscape of food system policies, including market regulations 194

5.2.1. Food assistance programmes 194

5.2.2. Market regulation and competition issues 196

5.2.3. Food waste 199

5.3. Demand side policies for healthy diet and consumption choices and sustainability of food systems 201

5.3.1. Selected dietary risks 201

5.3.2. Policies to encourage healthier and sustainable food choices 202

5.4. Inclusive processes for navigating the triple challenge 204

5.4.1. Policy assessment and evaluation 205

5.4.2. Stakeholder engagement and policy co-ordination 206

5.5. Conclusions 210

References 212

Notes 216

6. Agricultural policy performance in achieving national objectives 219

6.1. EU and domestic policy objectives 220

6.1.1. Policy objectives 220

6.2. Benchmarking productivity and environmental sustainability performance compared with OECD countries 221

6.2.1. Agricultural productivity growth 221

6.2.2. Sustainable productivity growth 224

6.3. Conclusions 226

References 227

Note 227

Tables 7

Table 1.1. Contextual indicators 33

Table 1.2. Changes in the composition of agricultural production 45

Table 1.3. Cereals and oilseeds are among the most important export products 52

Table 1.4. Agriculture and food have increased their forward and backward linkages 56

Table 1.5. The foreign services content of agro-food exports is increasing 57

Table 2.1. NRDP 2007-13, budget breakdown by axis 71

Table 2.2. Coupled payments as a share of farm revenues 75

Table 2.3. The utilisation of rural development measures diverged 76

Table 2.4. More than one-third of coupled payments will support the dairy sector 80

Table 2.5. Almost half of investment funding will support on-farm productive investments 84

Table 2.6. High share of payments will support areas affected by natural and other specific constraints 85

Table 2.7. Agricultural products exempt from the income tax 91

Table 2.8. The EU has a relatively high share of agro-food tariffs in non-ad valorem form 96

Table 2.9. EU funds finance more than three quarters of budgetary support to agriculture 101

Table 3.1. GAEC standards in Romania for the 2014-22 119

Table 3.2. GAEC Standards in Romania's CSP 124

Table 3.3. The first eco-scheme on beneficial practices applicable in arable land takes up two-thirds of the budget 125

Table 3.4. Most of the environmental, climate-related and other management commitments is targeted to animal welfare 126

Table 4.1. R&D expenditure intensities 167

Table 4.2. Training level of farm managers, 2010 and 2020 176

Table 4.3. Agriculture and food science R&D outcomes 178

Table 5.1. Romania policy mix to encourage healthier food choices 203

Table 5.2. Areas where further policy action in Romania could be explored 204

Figures 8

Figure 1.1. Regions and counties of Romania 34

Figure 1.2. Importance of rural areas in Romania, 2022 35

Figure 1.3. Holdings and land distribution by farm size as a share of the total (2020) 36

Figure 1.4. Evolution of agriculture's share of GDP and employment in selected countries, 2000-2020 37

Figure 1.5. Agricultural land use and its evolution in Romania, 2001-21 38

Figure 1.6. Low net worth compared to EU average and to regional peers 40

Figure 1.7. Change in number of holdings and land distribution by farm size, 2010-20 42

Figure 1.8. Percentual change of farms holdings and output by farm size, 2010-20 43

Figure 1.9. Evolution of agricultural income in Romania 44

Figure 1.10. Evolution of the value of crop and animal output, 2005-2021 45

Figure 1.11. Yield's evolution of main commodities 46

Figure 1.12. Evolution of age distribution of farm's manager and the share of young farmers in Romania 47

Figure 1.13. Distribution of age and gender of farm managers in Romania, 2020 48

Figure 1.14. Evolution in the composition of female employment by sector, 2010-21 49

Figure 1.15. Agro-food trade has experienced remarkable growth in the last decades 50

Figure 1.16. Vegetable products are the most important export group 51

Figure 1.17. Exports are increasingly concentrated on cereals and oilseeds 53

Figure 1.18. Non-EU partners made up 42% of Romania's agro-food exports 54

Figure 1.19. EU partners supply over three-quarters of Romania's agro-food imports 54

Figure 1.20. Exports to non-EU partners have shown more dynamism in recent years 55

Figure 1.21. Romania has a relatively low share of foreign value-added in its agro-food exports 57

Figure 2.1. Most direct payments went to medium and large farms 74

Figure 2.2. Most coupled support went to livestock sector 75

Figure 2.3. Distribution of total planned expenditures for the CAP 2023-27 79

Figure 2.4. Distribution of planned expenditures by type of direct payments (2023-27) 80

Figure 2.5. Distribution of funding by type of Rural Development intervention (2023-27) 83

Figure 2.6. Agro-food tariffs are almost three times higher than for other sectors 95

Figure 2.7. CAP reforms have changed the share and composition of EU producer support 100

Figure 3.1. Average annual change in selected agri-environmental indicators, 2011-2019 115

Figure 3.2. Share of protected terrestrial area in 2021 in Romania and selected regions 128

Figure 3.3. Share of organic farming in utilised agricultural area of Romania and selected countries 129

Figure 3.4. Estimated soil erosion by water in Romania and selected countries 130

Figure 3.5. Estimated soil erosion by water in Romania at NUTS 3 regional level, 2016 130

Figure 3.6. Synthetic and manure nitrogen (N) inputs in Romania and selected regions 131

Figure 3.7. Synthetic and manure phosphorus inputs in Romania and selected regions 131

Figure 3.8. Nutrient balances in Romania and in other selected regions 132

Figure 3.9. Agricultural ammonia (NH₃) emissions intensity in Romania and selected regions 133

Figure 3.10. Pesticide sales per area of arable land in Romania and selected regions 134

Figure 3.11. Share of freshwater abstraction for agriculture in Romania and selected regions in 2020 135

Figure 3.12. Relative change in GHG emissions from agriculture in Romania and selected regions 137

Figure 3.13. Total and AFOLU GHG emissions in Romania in 2021 137

Figure 4.1. Actors and knowledge flows in the Romania's AKIS 153

Figure 4.2. Funding of the Romanian System of Agricultural Research and Innovation 161

Figure 4.3. Government budget allocation for R&D in Romanian agriculture, 2008-21 165

Figure 4.4. Gross domestic R&D in Romania by sector of performance 166

Figure 4.5. Spending rates on knowledge and innovation measures under the rural development funding of the CAP 2014-22, as of 2023 168

Figure 4.6. Resources planned, decided, and spent on knowledge and innovation measures under the rural development funding of the CAP... 169

Figure 4.7. Households with broadband Internet access at home and NGA coverage 172

Figure 4.8. Intellectual property protection index 173

Figure 4.9. Index of legal intellectual property rights protection for plant varieties 174

Figure 5.1. Primary production contributes more than half of the food value added 189

Figure 5.2. POs are important for marketing fruit and vegetables in most EU countries 191

Figure 5.3. Foreign industries account for one third of the value added in the food domestic demand 193

Figure 5.4. Prevalence of severe food insecurity in the population 195

Figure 5.5. Economy-wide PMR Indicator 198

Figure 5.6. Establishing a retail outlet for selling food and beverages requires obtaining an additional permit and an authorisation for larger outlets 198

Figure 5.7. Level of food waste across the food supply chain 199

Figure 5.8. Treatment of municipal food waste is decreasing 200

Figure 5.9. Evolution of body mass index 201

Figure 5.10. Daily consumption of fruits and vegetables 202

Figure 5.11. Romania performance is relatively weak on ex post evaluations 206

Figure 5.12. Most EU Member States report informing domestic stakeholders about European Commission consultations and performing RIA... 208

Figure 5.13. Most OECD and accession candidate countries participate in a UNFSS coalition and/or have presented a national pathway 210

Figure 6.1. EU policy sets the direction for national policy 220

Figure 6.2. TFP growth shifted from a negative to positive influence on growth after 2011 222

Figure 6.3. Labour productivity has been the main driver of agricultural output growth 223

Figure 6.4. Romania had a good productivity performance in the last decade 224

Figure 6.5. Romania was unable to decouple GHG emissions from agricultural output 225

Figure 6.6. Romania reduced its agricultural GHG emission intensity 225

Boxes 9

Box 1.1. Indicators to measure engagement in global value chains and identify value adding pathways in agriculture and food trade 55

Box 2.1. The EU Common Agricultural Policy 68

Box 2.2. Policies for the Future of Farming and Food in the European Union: Key messages 69

Box 2.3. Institutions involved in the design and implementation of agricultural policy 72

Box 2.4. Eco-schemes 82

Box 3.1. Results-based management of hay meadows in Transylvanian High Nature Value farmland 122

Box 4.1. Public research institutes in Romania 155

Box 4.2. Brief history of agricultural advisory services in Romania 157

Box 4.3. Testing and registration of new plant varieties in Romania 174

Box 5.1. Associative forms in the EU common organisation of markets in agricultural products 190

Box 5.2. Local gastronomic points in Romanian rural areas 192

Box 5.3. OECD four-track policy approach to encourage healthier food choices 203

Box 5.4. Technical co-operation for regulatory impact assessments in animal breeding 205

출판사 책소개

알라딘제공
Romania has made significant economic and social progress in the last decades, particularly since joining the European Union, with the EU Common Agricultural Policy playing a key role in shaping its agricultural development. Agriculture in Romania is marked by a dual farm structure and slow structural transformation, and key challenges need to be addressed to unlock the sector's full economic potential. This report reviews Romania's agricultural and food system policies and offers recommendations to support a more productive, sustainable, and resilient agro-food sector. It highlights the need for action to: develop a coherent policy mix to accelerate structural change in agriculture; create an enabling environment for a more competitive and resilient agro-food sector; strengthen policies to ensure long-term environmental sustainability; and to reinforce the agricultural knowledge and innovation system.

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