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Title page 1

Contents 6

Foreword 4

Abbreviations and acronyms 10

Executive summary 12

1. Introduction 15

Key concepts 18

Terminology and classification among education systems 20

Cross-national trends and disparities in school attendance problems 25

Persistently higher absences after the COVID-19 pandemic 43

References 47

Annex 1.A. Questionnaire items for background characteristics 54

Annex 1.B. Questionnaire items for truancy and absence 56

Notes 58

2. Drivers of school attendance problems 59

Introduction 60

Bioecological model for understanding and working with drivers 63

Continuity and change in school attendance problems (chronosystem) 67

Central level policies, natural shocks and absence trajectories (macrosystem) 71

Place and access shaping attendance trajectories (exosystem) 74

Family-school links, parental beliefs and institutional collaboration shaping attendance (mesosystem) 76

School, peers and family dynamics linked to school attendance problems (microsystem) 80

Health, well-being and disengagement from school (person characteristics) 93

Interactions among levels 100

References 102

Annex 2.A. Associations between long-term absence, sampled absent students and school closures 119

Annex 2.B. Models 120

Notes 122

3. Consequences of school attendance problems 123

Introduction 125

Consequences for academic outcomes in education 128

Consequences for non-academic outcomes in education 141

Consequences for early leaving from education and training, and attainment 145

Associations with labour market outcomes 149

Potentially negative consequences for health and well-being in later life 152

Associations with justice involvement, civic engagement and other outcomes 153

References 155

Notes 166

4. Policy and practice for supporting school attendance 167

Introduction 169

Policy responses to SAP 170

References 217

Annex 4.A. Monitoring systems for SAP 237

Notes 240

5. Key messages, policy pointers and future research 241

Introduction 243

Key messages and policy pointers 243

Research gaps and future research 255

References 260

Annex A. OECD Policy Survey on School Attendance Problems 262

Tables 8

Table 1.1. Definitions of selected terms related to school attendance problems 18

Figures 7

Figure 1.1. Authorised and unauthorised absences (2025) 23

Figure 1.2. Student truancy in secondary education (2012, 2018 and 2022) 26

Figure 1.3. Gender differences in truancy among 15-year-old students (2022 and 2012) 27

Figure 1.4. Socio-economic differences in truancy among 15-year-old students (2022 and 2012) 28

Figure 1.5. Immigrant differences in truancy among 15-year-old students (2022 and 2012) 29

Figure 1.6. School location differences in truancy among 15-year-old students (2022 and 2012) 30

Figure 1.7. Student absence in primary education (2015-2023) 31

Figure 1.8. Gender differences in absence among fourth-grade students (2023 and 2015) 32

Figure 1.9. Socio-economic differences in absence among fourth-grade students (2023 and 2015) 33

Figure 1.10. Immigrant differences in absence among fourth-grade students (2023 and 2015) 34

Figure 1.11. School location differences in absence among fourth-grade students (2023 and 2015) 35

Figure 1.12. Truancy as a barrier to learning in secondary education (2012-2022) 37

Figure 1.13. Absence or arriving late as a serious problem in primary education (2011-2023) 38

Figure 1.14. Variation between school leaders' concerns about SAP and students' self-reported SAP 39

Figure 1.15. Persistence in SAP between primary and secondary education at the system level 40

Figure 1.16. Long-term student absence from primary to upper secondary education (2022) 41

Figure 1.17. Disparities in long-term student absence (2022) 42

Figure 1.18. Chronic absence trends in Ireland, Japan, New Zealand and Scotland (United Kingdom) 44

Figure 2.1. Reasons for long-term absence (2022) 63

Figure 2.2. The process, person, context and time framework 64

Figure 2.3. Persistent long-term absence between primary and secondary education 68

Figure 2.4. Absence rates over grades 69

Figure 2.5. Long-term absence and expenditure per student 72

Figure 2.6. Long-term absence and age of first selection 73

Figure 2.7. Parents' participation in school-related activities 77

Figure 2.8. Acceptable reasons for not going to school in Ireland and likelihood of parents to keep child out of school in New Zealand 79

Figure 2.9. School belonging and school climate 82

Figure 2.10. Quality of student-teacher relationships and long-term absence 83

Figure 2.11. Teacher shortage and teacher absence 85

Figure 2.12. Being bullied 88

Figure 2.13. Socio-economic background and not eating because of money 91

Figure 2.14. Family support 93

Figure 2.15. Sickness as a reason for long-term absence 95

Figure 2.16. Boredom as a reason for long-term absence and differences in disciplinary climate 99

Figure 3.1. Consequences of school attendance problems 126

Figure 3.2. Long-term absent students have lower intrinsic motivation and educational expectations 131

Figure 3.3. The effect of long-term absence on scores can be substantial 132

Figure 3.4. Substantial effects of truancy on performance 136

Figure 3.5. Association between long-term absence and mathematics performance before and after accounting for socio-economic background 138

Figure 3.6. Long-term absent students are more likely to score below baseline proficiency Level 2 140

Figure 3.7. Socio-emotional skills and growth mindset 142

Figure 3.8. Absences and mental health difficulties in England (United Kingdom) 143

Figure 3.9. Criteria for completing educational levels vary among education systems 147

Figure 3.10. Decreasing earnings with absences 150

Figure 4.1. Legal provisions regarding compulsory school attendance 172

Figure 4.2. Exemptions to mandatory school attendance 173

Figure 4.3. Required consultations after absences 175

Figure 4.4. Punitive measures following absence 177

Figure 4.5. Policies related to enforced absence 180

Figure 4.6. Education systems requiring or encouraging schools to engage non-teaching staff 184

Figure 4.7. System-level policies on instruction adaptation for students with attendance problems 186

Figure 4.8. System-level policies requiring or encouraging support measures 189

Figure 4.9. System-level policies requiring or encouraging measures to promote engagement 194

Figure 4.10. System-level policies changing the curriculum or making it more flexible 196

Figure 4.11. Conceptual model of the consequences of educator professional development for student absences 203

Figure 4.12. Required continuing professional learning related to student absence 204

Figure 4.13. Frequency at which attendance data is reported to the national (sub-national) level 206

Figure 4.14. Reasons recorded or categorised in national (sub-national) attendance datasets 209

Figure 4.15. How education systems engage with digital tools to monitor attendance 211

Figure 4.16. How student perspectives are collected to inform policies or practices related to school attendance problems 213

Figure 4.17. Systems use of early warning systems 214

Boxes 9

Box 1.1. OECD Policy Survey on School Attendance Problems 17

Box 2.1. Long-term absence in PISA 2022 62

Box 3.1. Effects of instructional time on outcomes 128

Box 4.1. To fine or not to fine: evidence on the impact of financial sanctions on attendance 178

Box 4.2. Hidden forms of enforced absences 181

Box 4.3. Effectiveness of academic interventions in addressing SAP 188

Box 4.4. Home School Community Liaison Officers 198

Box 4.5. The adoption of MTSS for attendance 200

Box 4.6. Croatia's dashboard: Students, overall achievement and absences 207

Box 4.7. Linking attendance data with outcomes beyond education in New Zealand 208

Box 4.8. Attendance codes in England (United Kingdom) 210

Box 4.9. Discimus in the Flemish Community of Belgium 212

Box 4.10. Early Warning Indicator System, Massachusetts (United States) 214

Annex Tables 8

Annex Table 1.A.1. Questions focusing on background characteristics across surveys 54

Annex Table 1.B.1. PISA questionnaire items measuring student truancy 56

Annex Table 1.B.2. TIMSS questionnaire items measuring student absence 56

Annex Table 1.B.3. PISA questionnaire items measuring truancy as a barrier to learning 57

Annex Table 1.B.4. TIMSS questionnaire items measuring absence or arriving late as a serious problem 57

Annex Table 2.B.1. Predicted changes in the probability of long-term absence in secondary education (2022) 120

Annex Figures 8

Annex Figure 2.A.1. Long-term absence, sampled absent students and school closures 119

Annex Figure 4.A.1. Number of education systems in which attendance data is collected and available, per educational level 237

Annex Figure 4.A.2. Onset of student attendance data collection at the national (sub-national) level 237

Annex Figure 4.A.3. Legal or technical constraints to linking attendance data with student characteristics at the national (sub-national) level 238

Annex Figure 4.A.4. Legal or technical constraints to linking attendance data with students' outcomes and other characteristics at the national... 238

Annex Figure 4.A.5. Use of attendance data within system-level methods to identify students at risk of dropping out 239

Annex Figure 4.A.6. Integration of SAP evaluations as part of internal school evaluations 239

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