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Title page 1

Contents 20

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Abbreviations and acronyms 7

Executive summary 26

Key findings 26

Key recommendations 27

1. Overview 29

1.1. The sustainable infrastructure imperative 30

1.2. Sustainable infrastructure in Central and Southeast Asia: Initiatives, opportunities and challenges 32

1.2.1. Central and Southeast Asia's infrastructure investment gap and unique sustainable infrastructure opportunity 32

1.2.2. Regional initiatives in Central and Southeast Asia 34

1.2.3. Central and Southeast Asia's sustainable infrastructure challenges 36

1.3. The SIPA framework 39

1.4. SIPA assessment of conditions for sustainable infrastructure development in Central and Southeast Asia 44

1.4.1. National strategic planning framework for sustainable infrastructure 44

1.4.2. Framework conditions for attracting investments into sustainable energy, transport and industrial infrastructure 54

1.4.3. Policies for mobilising private finance into sustainable infrastructure development 60

1.5. Conclusions and next steps 67

References 69

Note 73

2. Kazakhstan 74

2.1. Introduction: national challenges for sustainable infrastructure development in Kazakhstan 77

2.1.1. Meeting Kazakhstan's infrastructure needs for sustainable economic development requires prioritising high-impact projects... 77

2.1.2. Filling the financing gap and achieving the transformation of Kazakhstan's infrastructure is needed to meet climate and... 80

2.1.3. Developing sustainable infrastructure represents a strong opportunity for Kazakhstan's long-term economic diversification... 83

2.2. National strategic planning framework for sustainable infrastructure 84

2.2.1. National governance and strategic framework for sustainable infrastructure development 85

2.2.2. Long-term planning tools: modelling, scenario-building and foresight capabilities 91

2.2.3. Credible national sustainability and climate commitments 97

2.2.4. Policy-level and asset-level sustainability evaluation tools integrating environmental and social considerations 99

2.2.5. Mainstreaming resilience into infrastructure development 103

2.2.6. Mainstreaming gender in national strategic planning frameworks 104

2.3. Framework conditions for attracting investments into sustainable energy, transport and industrial infrastructure 106

2.3.1. Framework conditions for sustainable energy infrastructure development 107

2.3.2. Framework conditions for sustainable transport infrastructure development 112

2.3.3. Framework conditions for sustainable industrial infrastructure development 116

2.4. Policies for mobilising private finance into sustainable infrastructure development 119

2.4.1. Institutional and regulatory framework for green finance development 121

2.4.2. Green taxonomies 124

2.4.3. Responsible business conduct framework 127

References 130

Notes 140

3. Mongolia 141

3.1. Introduction: national challenges for sustainable infrastructure development in Mongolia 144

3.1.1. Meeting Mongolia's infrastructure requirements for economic and sustainability goals requires diversifying sources of financing... 144

3.1.2. Sustainable infrastructure investments offer an opportunity for Mongolia's long-term economic diversification and competitiveness 146

3.1.3. A significant transformation of Mongolia's current infrastructure base is needed to make it fit for tackling national environmental... 148

3.2. National strategic planning framework for sustainable infrastructure 152

3.2.1. National governance and strategic framework for sustainable infrastructure development 153

3.2.2. Long-term planning tools: modelling, scenario-building and foresight capabilities 158

3.2.3. Credible national climate mitigation commitments 162

3.2.4. Policy-level and asset-level sustainability evaluation tools integrating environmental and social considerations 164

3.2.5. Mainstreaming resilience into infrastructure development 167

3.2.6. Integrating gender considerations into infrastructure planning and evaluation frameworks 167

3.3. Sectoral framework conditions for attracting investments into sustainable energy, transport and industrial infrastructure 169

3.3.1. Framework conditions for sustainable energy infrastructure development 170

3.3.2. Framework conditions for sustainable transport infrastructure development 172

3.3.3. Framework conditions for sustainable industrial infrastructure development 177

3.4. Policies for mobilising private sector financing into sustainable infrastructure development 184

3.4.1. Green taxonomies 185

3.4.2. Sustainable and green finance instruments 186

3.4.3. Responsible business conduct framework 188

References 191

Notes 198

4. Uzbekistan 199

4.1. Introduction: national challenges for sustainable infrastructure development in Uzbekistan 201

4.1.1. Meeting Uzbekistan's infrastructure requirements for economic and sustainability goals requires diversifying sources... 202

4.1.2. Sustainable infrastructure investments offer an opportunity for Uzbekistan's long-term economic diversification and competitiveness 205

4.1.3. A significant transformation of Uzbekistan's current infrastructure base is needed to make it sustainable in the face of climate... 206

4.2. National strategic planning framework for sustainable infrastructure 210

4.2.1. National governance and strategic framework for sustainable infrastructure development 210

4.2.2. Long-term planning tools: modelling, scenario-building and foresight capabilities 216

4.2.3. Credible national sustainability and climate commitments 219

4.2.4. Policy-level and asset-level sustainability evaluation tools integrating environmental and social considerations 221

4.2.5. Mainstreaming gender in national strategic planning frameworks 225

4.3. Framework conditions for attracting investments into sustainable energy, transport and industrial infrastructure 226

4.3.1. Framework conditions for sustainable energy infrastructure development 227

4.3.2. Framework conditions for sustainable transport infrastructure development 228

4.3.3. Framework conditions for sustainable industrial infrastructure development 233

4.4. Policies for mobilising private finance into sustainable infrastructure development 234

4.4.1. Green taxonomies 235

4.4.2. Sustainable and green finance instruments 236

4.4.3. Responsible business conduct framework 238

References 241

Notes 247

5. Indonesia 248

5.1. Introduction: National challenges for sustainable infrastructure development in Indonesia 249

5.1.1. The infrastructure gap in Indonesia 249

5.1.2. Sustainable infrastructure investments offer an opportunity for Indonesia's long-term competitiveness and development 251

5.1.3. The need for infrastructure aligned with climate and broader sustainability risks and commitments 252

5.2. National strategic planning framework for sustainable infrastructure 255

5.2.1. National governance and strategic framework for sustainable infrastructure development 256

5.2.2. Long-term planning tools: modelling, scenario-building and foresight capabilities 260

5.2.3. Policy-level and asset-level sustainability evaluation tools integrating environmental and social considerations 261

5.2.4. Mainstreaming climate resilience into infrastructure development 262

5.2.5. Mainstreaming gender considerations into infrastructure planning and evaluation frameworks 264

5.3. Framework conditions for attracting investments into sustainable energy, transport and industrial infrastructure 266

5.3.1. Framework conditions for sustainable energy infrastructure development 267

5.3.2. Framework conditions for sustainable transport infrastructure development 271

5.3.3. Framework conditions for sustainable industrial infrastructure development 273

5.4. Policies for mobilising private finance into sustainable infrastructure development 275

5.4.1. Green taxonomies 276

5.4.2. Sustainable and green finance instruments 277

5.4.3. Responsible business conduct framework 280

References 282

Notes 287

6. The Philippines 288

6.1. Introduction: National challenges for sustainable infrastructure development in the Philippines 291

6.1.1. The infrastructure gap in the Philippines 291

6.1.2. Sustainable infrastructure investments offer an opportunity for the Philippines' long-term competitiveness and development 293

6.1.3. The need for infrastructure aligned with climate and broader sustainability risks and commitments 296

6.2. National strategic planning framework for sustainable infrastructure 298

6.2.1. National governance and strategic framework for sustainable infrastructure development 299

6.2.2. Long-term planning tools: modelling, scenario-building and foresight capabilities 304

6.2.3. Credible climate commitments 306

6.2.4. Policy-level and asset-level sustainability evaluation tools integrating environmental and social considerations 307

6.2.5. Mainstreaming resilience in infrastructure development 308

6.2.6. Mainstreaming gender considerations into infrastructure planning and evaluation frameworks 313

6.3. Framework conditions for attracting investments into sustainable energy, transport and industrial infrastructure 315

6.3.1. Framework conditions for sustainable energy infrastructure development 316

6.3.2. Framework conditions for sustainable transport infrastructure development 318

6.4. Policies for mobilising private sector financing into sustainable infrastructure development 320

6.4.1. Green taxonomies 320

6.4.2. Sustainable and green finance instruments 322

6.4.3. Responsible business conduct framework 325

References 328

Notes 333

7. Thailand 334

7.1. Introduction: national challenges for sustainable infrastructure development in Thailand 336

7.1.1. The infrastructure gap in Thailand 336

7.1.2. Sustainable infrastructure investments offer an opportunity for Thailand's long-term competitiveness and development 339

7.1.3. The need for infrastructure aligned with climate and broader sustainability risks and commitments 340

7.2. National strategic planning framework for sustainable infrastructure 343

7.2.1. National governance and strategic framework for sustainable infrastructure development 344

7.2.2. Long-term planning tools: modelling, scenario-building and foresight capabilities 351

7.2.3. Policy-level and asset-level sustainability evaluation tools integrating environmental and social considerations 353

7.2.4/7.2.3. Mainstreaming climate adaptation into infrastructure development 356

7.2.5/7.2.4. Mainstreaming gender considerations into infrastructure planning and evaluation frameworks 359

7.3. Framework conditions for attracting investments into sustainable energy, transport and industrial infrastructure 362

7.3.1. Framework conditions for sustainable energy infrastructure development 363

7.3.2. Sustainable transport infrastructure development - State of play and framework conditions 365

7.3.3. Framework conditions for sustainable industrial infrastructure development 367

7.4. Policies for mobilising private sector financing into sustainable infrastructure development 372

7.4.1. Green taxonomies 372

7.4.2. Sustainable and green finance instruments 374

7.4.3. Responsible business conduct framework 379

References 381

Notes 388

Tables 21

Table 1.1. Asian economies are growing rapidly and have large infrastructure investment needs, but sustainable scenarios... 33

Table 1.2. Selected regional initiatives and strategies 35

Table 1.3. SIPA's activities and results 41

Table 1.4. SIPA framework and preliminary assessments of progress 44

Table 1.5. LT-LEDS and NDCs in Central and Southeast Asia 48

Table 1.6. Green and sustainable taxonomies in SIPA countries 62

Table 2.1. Estimates of infrastructure investment needs and SDG financing needs in Kazakhstan 78

Table 2.2. Kazakhstan's strategic plans and programmes of relevance to sustainable infrastructure development 90

Table 2.3. Approach for assessing the policy coherence of LT-LEDS at each stage 94

Table 2.4. Policy coherence assessment of the LT-LEDS process 95

Table 2.5. Policy coherence assessment of the LT-LEDS document 96

Table 2.6. Notable green and sustainable finance developments in Kazakhstan 122

Table 2.7. Mitigation-related investments in selected sectors 124

Table 3.1. SDG Investor Opportunity Areas in energy and other sustainable infrastructure 146

Table 3.2. Mongolia's strategic plans and programmes of relevance to sustainable infrastructure 155

Table 3.3. Assessing the policy coherence of LT-LEDS 160

Table 3.4. Ulaanbaatar sustainable mobility policy scenarios: measures under the planned policy and the climate ambition policy scenario 176

Table 3.5. Risk factors and possible de-risking mechanisms for renewable hydrogen development 182

Table 3.6. Mongolia's green finance framework 186

Table 4.1. Investment needs by sector, and share of private sector investment 203

Table 4.2. SDG Investor Opportunity Areas in energy and other sustainable infrastructure 205

Table 4.3. Uzbekistan's strategic plans and programmes of relevance to sustainable infrastructure development 213

Table 4.4. Approach for assessing the policy coherence of LT-LEDS at each stage 218

Table 5.1. Investment gap estimates: Infrastructure investment and net-zero financing gaps 250

Table 5.2. Indonesia's strategic plans and programmes of relevance to sustainable infrastructure 258

Table 5.3. Indonesia's sustainable finance policies and strategies 279

Table 6.1. The Philippines' strategic plans and programmes of relevance to sustainable infrastructure 302

Table 6.2. Consideration of climate resilience in sectoral plans 311

Table 6.3. Philippine sustainable finance policies and strategies 324

Table 7.1. Estimates of infrastructure investment needs and SDG financing needs in Thailand 337

Table 7.2. The private sector accounts for more than two-thirds of climate mitigation finance 338

Table 7.3. Thailand's strategic plans and programmes of relevance to sustainable infrastructure 345

Table 7.4. Net benefits from climate change adaptation 359

Table 7.5. Net benefits of climate adaptation considering gender equality, disability and social inclusion 361

Table 7.6. Notable green and sustainable finance developments in Thailand 378

Figures 22

Figure 1.1. Emissions per unit of GDP have declined rapidly across developing Asia 36

Figure 1.2. Energy dominates most SIPA countries' GHG profiles 37

Figure 1.3. Cancellations and limited retirements are slowing the buildout of coal-fired power generation, but large expansions remain planned 39

Figure 1.4. SIPA intervenes across four thematic pillars to target four layers of misalignment 40

Figure 1.5. Delivering environmentally sustainable and climate-resilient infrastructure, 2024-2025 (SEA) and 2022 (OECD) 45

Figure 1.6. Integrated cost-benefit analysis reveals unaccounted-for environmental and social benefits of sustainable infrastructure projects 50

Figure 1.7. Fossil fuel subsidies remain high, especially in Central Asia 55

Figure 1.8. Combining connectivity and decarbonisation measures could drastically reduce freight emissions in Central Asia 57

Figure 1.9. Connectivity and decarbonisation measures could absorb demand without increasing freight emissions in Southeast Asia 58

Figure 1.10. Global green, social, sustainable and sustainability-linked bond issuance has reached USD 1 trillion 65

Figure 2.1. Kazakhstan's GDP and general government gross fixed capital formation spending as a percentage of GDP 79

Figure 2.2. Emissions per unit of Kazakhstan's economic output have decreased 80

Figure 2.3. Energy, including power generation and transport, accounts for over three quarters of Kazakhstan's greenhouse gas emissions 81

Figure 2.4. Coal-fired power plants generate over half of Kazakhstan's electricity, but the share of natural gas and renewables is increasing 82

Figure 2.5. Hydrocarbons and minerals consistently account for the largest share of Kazakhstan's export revenue 83

Figure 2.6. Kazakhstan's projected net-zero pathway 92

Figure 2.7. Coal mining and exports in Kazakhstan, all types 98

Figure 2.8. Integrated CBA captures hidden benefits, including additional trade revenue and emissions abatement 102

Figure 2.9. Energy investments aimed at decarbonisation and energy efficiency 107

Figure 2.10. Fossil fuel subsidies have surged in recent years, primarily driven by electricity, gas and oil 108

Figure 2.11. Share of energy-use CO2 emissions priced by emissions trading systems 110

Figure 2.12. GHG emissions from transport have been on the rise since 1999, primarily driven by emissions from road transport 113

Figure 2.13. The metallurgical sector is responsible for the lion's share of industry-sector emissions 117

Figure 2.14. Green bond and loan issuances in Kazakhstan 123

Figure 3.1. Mongolia's GDP and general government's capital expenditure as a percentage of GDP 145

Figure 3.2. Mongolia's export is highly concentrated in the coal sector 147

Figure 3.3. Mongolia's GHG emissions have trended upwards, split between energy and agriculture 149

Figure 3.4. Emissions per unit of output have decreased by two thirds but remain among the highest in the world 150

Figure 3.5. Electricity generation in Mongolia: source and emissions footprint 162

Figure 3.6. Planned electricity generation expansion by source (2019-2030) 163

Figure 3.7. Integrated CBA captures hidden benefits, including avoided fuel use and maintenance costs, under different scenarios 166

Figure 3.8. Transport emissions have grown steadily over the past 30 years, mainly driven by the increase of road transport emissions 173

Figure 3.9. Mining emissions in Mongolia and the carbon intensity of industrial output 178

Figure 3.10. Electricity demand in Mongolia by sector 179

Figure 3.11. Evolution of green loans as a share of Mongolian banks' total loan portfolios 187

Figure 4.1. Uzbekistan's GDP and general government capital expenditure as a percentage of GDP 204

Figure 4.2. While Uzbekistan's gold and other metal exports dominate, non-resource sectors represent a growing proportion of total exports 206

Figure 4.3. Uzbekistan's economy has steadily become less emissions-intensive 207

Figure 4.4. Energy accounts for the majority of Uzbekistan's GHG emissions, but agriculture and IPPU make up a growing share 208

Figure 4.5. Natural gas still generates the vast majority of Uzbekistan's power 219

Figure 4.6. Integrated CBA captures hidden costs like the cost of road accidents 223

Figure 4.7. Transport emissions, particularly from road, have surged over the past decade 229

Figure 5.1. Indonesia's GDP and gross fixed capital formation as a percentage of GDP 251

Figure 5.2. Climate related disasters in Indonesia (2000-2025) 253

Figure 5.3. Indonesia's GHG emissions by sector 254

Figure 5.4. Indonesia's primary energy supply 255

Figure 5.5. Coal-fired generation continues to grow rapidly in Indonesia, outstripping gains in geothermal and other renewables 268

Figure 5.6. Coal, oil and gas receive almost all Indonesian government support in the energy sector 269

Figure 5.7. Modal share of transport CO₂ emissions in Indonesia, 1990-2023 271

Figure 5.8. Evolution of total final energy consumption in Indonesia since 2000 274

Figure 5.9. Outstanding local currency and foreign currency denominated bonds as a share of total outstanding bonds in Indonesia 278

Figure 6.1. The Philippines' GDP and gross fixed capital formation as a percentage of GDP 293

Figure 6.2. Transport costs are higher in the Philippines than in many of its regional peers 295

Figure 6.3. The Philippines' GHG emissions continue to rise, particularly in the energy sector 296

Figure 6.4. Fossil fuels continue to dominate the Philippines' total primary energy supply 297

Figure 6.5. The Philippines' power generation mix 316

Figure 6.6. Transport emissions in the Philippines 318

Figure 6.7. Sustainable bonds account for only a fraction of bonds issued in the Philippines 322

Figure 6.8. Outstanding local currency and foreign currency denominated bonds by sustainable bond type 323

Figure 7.1. Thailand's GDP and gross fixed capital formation as a percentage of GDP 338

Figure 7.2. Energy, including power generation and transport, accounts for over two thirds of Thailand's greenhouse gas emissions 341

Figure 7.3. While renewables are gaining ground, natural gas continues to dominate Thailand's electricity mix 342

Figure 7.4. Final energy consumption in Thailand by economic activity and manufacturing sector, 2023 368

Figure 7.5. Final energy consumption of Thailand's industry sector by energy source 369

Figure 7.6. Final energy consumption of Thailand's energy sector including non-energy uses, by fuel 369

Figure 7.7. Thailand's green and sustainable bond market has grown significantly since 2020 376

Boxes 24

Box 1.1. Sustainable Infrastructure Programme in Asia (SIPA) 39

Box 1.2. Integrating NbS into infrastructure planning 52

Box 1.3. Guidance on integrating gender into climate plans 53

Box 1.4. A sequential, multi-step approach to fossil fuel subsidy reform 56

Box 1.5. OECD Framework for industry's net-zero transition 59

Box 1.6. Innovative capacity building approaches: CASI 60

Box 1.7. ASEAN taxonomy for sustainable finance 64

Box 2.1. Priority recommendations 84

Box 2.2. Strengthening infrastructure governance using the OECD Infrastructure Governance Indicators 87

Box 2.3. Kazakhstan's priority infrastructure projects 88

Box 2.4. Strategic foresight for infrastructure strategy development and refinement 93

Box 2.5. SIPA recommendations for the future development of the Carbon Neutrality Strategy of Kazakhstan and its Implementation Roadmap 97

Box 2.6. A Sustainable Asset Valuation of Building and Transport Infrastructure Investment in the Shymkent-Tashkent-Khujand Economic Corridor 101

Box 2.7. Mainstreaming resilience into infrastructure planning 104

Box 2.8. Priority recommendations 106

Box 2.9. Reforming Kazakhstan's ETS 111

Box 2.10. Measures to improve the connectivity, resilience and sustainability of Kazakhstan's freight network 115

Box 2.11. OECD-Qaztrade recommendations for driving decarbonisation in hard-to-abate exporting industries 118

Box 2.12. Priority recommendations 119

Box 2.13. Green taxonomies and their role in finance mobilisation for sustainable infrastructure: the example of the EU 125

Box 3.1. Priority recommendations 152

Box 3.2. Strengthening infrastructure governance using the OECD Infrastructure Governance Indicators 154

Box 3.3. Mongolia's 14 mega projects 157

Box 3.4. Strategic foresight for infrastructure strategy development and refinement 161

Box 3.5. A Sustainable Asset Valuation of Electrifying Ulaanbaatar's Public Buses 166

Box 3.6. Priority recommendations 169

Box 3.7. Recommendations for connectivity, resilience and sustainability of the freight network 175

Box 3.8. OECD recommendations for stimulating industrial investments into innovative energy efficiency and low carbon solutions 180

Box 3.9. Managing the impact of renewable hydrogen production in Mongolia on the water sector 183

Box 3.10. Priority recommendations 184

Box 4.1. Emerging environmental challenges in Uzbekistan 209

Box 4.2. Priority recommendations 210

Box 4.3. Strengthening infrastructure governance using the OECD Infrastructure Governance Indicators 212

Box 4.4. Uzbekistan's priority infrastructure projects 216

Box 4.5. The DDP Calculator model: quantifying decarbonisation pathways in the energy sector 217

Box 4.6. A Sustainable Asset Valuation of the Uchkuduk-Kazakhstan Border Highway, Uzbekistan 223

Box 4.7. Mainstreaming resilience into infrastructure planning 224

Box 4.8. Priority recommendations 226

Box 4.9. Measures to improve the connectivity, resilience and sustainability of Uzbekistan's freight network 231

Box 4.10. Decarbonising pathways for Tashkent's urban mobility 232

Box 4.11. Priority recommendations 235

Box 5.1. Priority recommendations 256

Box 5.2. Strategic foresight for infrastructure strategy development and refinement 261

Box 5.3. A Sustainable Asset Valuation of Nature-based Solutions for Road Resilience in Indonesia 262

Box 5.4. Leveraging nature-based solutions to strengthen infrastructure resilience in Indonesia 264

Box 5.5. Priority recommendations 267

Box 5.6. OECD Clean Energy Finance and Investment training weeks in Indonesia 270

Box 5.7. Priority recommendations 275

Box 6.1. Policy recommendations 298

Box 6.2. OECD Infrastructure Governance Indicators results for the Philippines 300

Box 6.3. The Philippines' flagship infrastructure projects 303

Box 6.4. Strategic foresight for infrastructure strategy development and refinement 305

Box 6.5. A Sustainable Asset Valuation of the Mass Rapid Transit System in Pampanga, Philippines 308

Box 6.6. Mainstreaming Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) in Infrastructure Planning in the Philippines 310

Box 6.7. Roadmap to mainstream resilience in the Philippines' infrastructure 312

Box 6.8. Policy recommendations 315

Box 6.9. Policy recommendations 320

Box 6.10. Governance failures and infrastructure accountability in flood control management 327

Box 7.1. Priority recommendations 343

Box 7.2. Thailand's flagship infrastructure projects 347

Box 7.3. Governing Cross-cutting Net-zero Challenges from the Centre in Thailand 349

Box 7.4. Infrastructure governance practices in Thailand 350

Box 7.5. Thailand's Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy 351

Box 7.6. Strategic foresight for infrastructure strategy development and refinement 353

Box 7.7. Sustainable Asset Valuation in Thailand 356

Box 7.8. A Cost-Benefit Analysis of climate-proofing road and rail transport in Bangkok, Thailand 359

Box 7.9. Indirect Cost-Benefit Assessment in Gender Equality, Disability and Social Inclusion (GEDSI) Dimensions of Climate-Proofing Road... 361

Box 7.10. Priority recommendations 363

Box 7.11. Measures to improve the connectivity, resilience and sustainability of Thailand's freight network 365

Box 7.12. Implementing the OECD Framework for Industry's Net-zero Transition in Thailand: Decarbonising the Petrochemical Sector... 371

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