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Title page 1

Contents 7

Foreword 4

Acknowledgments 5

Acronyms and abbreviations 10

Executive summary 13

1. Setting the scene 16

Economic context 17

Connectivity and trade profile by country 19

The potential for CRM mining in Central Asia 23

State ownership in mining activities remains dominant across the region 27

Openness to foreign partnerships and investment varies across the region 28

Latest reforms in the mining sector by country 30

Gender in mining 32

Policy considerations 35

Report outline 37

References 38

Annex 1.A. Main mining projects in Central Asia 48

Annex 1.B. CRM endowments in Central Asia 50

2. Advancing Responsible Business Conduct (RBC) standards in mineral supply chains 53

Introduction 54

Governance in Central Asia's mining sector 58

Labour rights 63

Meaningful engagement of local communities 64

References 68

Note 73

3. Managing environmental risks in the CRM sector 75

The alignment of mining practices with environmental and broader sustainability goals will be pivotal as governments advance their CRM agendas 76

Keeping levels of greenhouse gas emissions aligned with climate goals 78

Addressing water stress and pollution 85

Managing mining waste and tailings 90

References 94

Annex 3.A. Strategic plans relevant to GHG emissions 102

Annex 3.B. Legislation relevant to GHG emissions 104

Annex 3.C. Legislation and strategic plans relevant to water resources 105

Annex 3.D. Legislation and strategic plans relevant to waste and tailings 108

4. Base Erosion and Profit Shifting tax risks in the CRM sector 111

Base Erosion and Profit Shifting risks in the CRM sector 112

High-level legislation gap analysis and recommendations 118

Country-level gap analysis 122

Opportunities and risks in the context of attracting the investment into critical raw materials sector 129

Conclusion 131

References 131

Tables 8

Table 1.1. Central Asia's endowment with Critical Raw Materials 24

Table 1.2. Employment in mining and quarrying in the Kyrgyz Republic by occupation (ISCO-1) and gender, 2022 34

Table 1.3. Employment in mining and quarrying in the Kyrgyz Republic by occupation (ISCO-1) and gender, relative to total gender percentage, 2022 34

Table 4.1. Revenue impacts from the under-pricing critical minerals 113

Figures 8

Figure 1.1. Real GDP growth (2014-2024) 17

Figure 1.2. Central Asia's trade partners 22

Figure 3.1. Production-based CO₂ productivity (2017-2024) 79

Figure 3.2. Energy intensity to GDP per capita, 2022 79

Figure 3.3. Share of recycled, incinerated and landfilled hazardous waste in total hazardous waste generated 92

Boxes 8

Box 1.1. Gold mining in Central Asia 19

Box 1.2. The potential of the Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor (TCTC) as a reliable route for CRM transport 21

Box 1.3. Automated hiring tools for a fairer recruitment process: the "Applied" platform 37

Box 2.1. The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) 56

Box 2.2. The National Contact Point (NCP) in Kazakhstan 58

Box 3.1. Chile's climate framework for the mining sector 82

Box 3.2. Mine water use in Kazakhstan: the case of a copper mine (MineX) 87

Box 3.3. Central Asia Metals PLC at the Kounrad copper mine in Kazakhstan 94

Box 4.1. BEPS Action 4 report 116

Box 4.2. BEPS Action 2 report 117

Box 4.3. OIT schemes - the case of Petrotech 118

Box 4.4. Legislative options to address OIT schemes 118

Box 4.5. Transfer Pricing Documentation 121

Annex Tables 8

Annex Table 1.A.1. Main on-going mining projects in Central Asia 48

Annex Table 1.B.1. Kazakhstan's CRM endowments 50

Annex Table 1.B.2. The Kyrgyz Republic's CRMs endowments 51

Annex Table 1.B.3. Uzbekistan's CRM endowments 51

Annex Table 3.A.1. Strategic plans relevant to GHG emissions 102

Annex Table 3.B.1. Legislation relevant to GHG emissions 104

Annex Table 3.C.1. Legislation and strategic plans relevant to water resources 105

Annex Table 3.D.1. Legislation and strategic plans relevant to waste and tailings 108

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