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Title page 1

Contents 6

Foreword 4

Acknowledgements 5

Executive summary 11

1. Digital governments at a turning point 14

1.1. DIGITAL GOVERNMENT IN A FAST-CHANGING WORLD 15

1.2. MEASURING PROGRESS TO TURN DIGITAL MATURITY INTO GOVERNMENT PERFORMANCE 15

1.3. THE STATE OF DIGITAL GOVERNMENT: REAL PROGRESS MADE, MORE STILL NEEDED 19

1.4. KEY CHALLENGES TO MOVING FROM POLICY DESIGN TO IMPLEMENTATION AND USE 21

1.4.1. Limited data governance prevents unlocking the value of data 21

1.4.2. Adoption of digital public infrastructure lags behind its rollout 22

1.4.3. Investment, procurement and skills are not yet fully aligned for digital delivery 22

1.4.4. AI adoption is advancing faster than governments' capacity to govern it 23

1.4.5. Services are still too reactive and fragmented to deliver government as one system 23

1.4.6. Moving away from fragmentation to achieve system-level performance 24

1.5. REALISING THE FULL POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL GOVERNMENT 24

1.5.1. Moving from building digital public infrastructure to driving its use 24

1.5.2. Making governance and investment fit for digital delivery 25

1.5.3. Building trust into AI in government from the outset 26

1.5.4. Delivering public services as one coherent system 27

1.6. SETTING UP THE DIGITAL GOVERNMENT OUTLOOK 28

Annex 1.A. OECD Digital Government Index scores 29

Annex 1.B. OECD Open, Useful and Re-usable Data (OURdata) Index scores 31

REFERENCES 35

2. Strengthening digital public infrastructure and data governance 37

2.1. INTRODUCTION 38

2.2. ROLLOUT OF DIGITAL PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE HAS ACCELERATED ACROSS OECD COUNTRIES 39

2.2.1. What counts as DPI and why it matters for outcomes 39

2.2.2. Progress and gaps: most building blocks are in place, but end-to-end delivery remains incomplete 40

2.3. GOVERNANCE OF DIGITAL IDENTITY IS NOT YET LEADING TO WIDER UPTAKE 42

2.3.1. Digital identity strategies are in place but their reach varies 42

2.3.2. Digital identity coverage is growing, though adoption varies across countries and users 44

2.4. DATA GOVERNANCE CONTINUES TO SEE A GAP BETWEEN STRONG STRATEGIES AND WEAKER DELIVERY 44

2.4.1. Public-sector data strategies are common and implementation is strengthening 46

2.4.2. Most countries have the basic tools for data management, but quality and coverage vary 48

2.4.3. Government are increasingly building ethical data management principles 49

2.4.4. Improving open government data availability, but value creation lags 50

2.4.5. Stakeholder engagement and impact assessment remain underdeveloped 52

2.4.6. Data are used more for oversight than for service improvement, and this matters for AI 53

2.5. INTEROPERABILITY OF DATA AND DIGITAL INFRASTRUCTURE IS EXPANDING BUT IS STILL UNEVENLY EMBEDDED 53

2.5.1. Domestic interoperability: Progress is real, but use of shared systems remains uneven 54

2.5.2. Cross-border interoperability: Building the foundations for services that work across borders 56

2.6. RESILIENCE AND SUSTAINABILITY: CLOUD TECHNOLOGIES AND OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE 58

2.6.1. Cloud technologies: A foundation for reliable and adaptable government 58

2.6.2. Open-source software: Growing adoption, but governance determines the benefits 60

Annex 2.A. Additional tables with country data 63

REFERENCES 69

3. Governing digital investment and capabilities to deliver at scale 73

3.1. INTRODUCTION 75

3.2. GOVERNING DIGITAL INVESTMENT: PROGRESS IN PLANNING, GAPS IN DELIVERY 75

3.2.1. Stronger central oversight is improving investment decisions, but lifecycle management remains uneven 75

3.2.2. Planning tools are widely available, but not yet adapted to the pace of modern digital delivery 78

3.2.3. Dedicated funding for digital government is growing, but is not yet flexible enough 79

3.2.4. Risk management is improving, but it is not yet consistently tailored to digital delivery 81

3.2.5. Procurement guidance is improving, but purchasing practices have not yet caught up 83

3.2.6. Monitoring is common, but evaluating results remain the missing link 84

3.3. BUILDING DIGITAL TALENT AND SKILLS: AWARENESS IS GROWING, BUT ACTION LAGS 88

3.3.1. Most countries have some strategic direction on digital skills, but dedicated strategies remain rare 89

3.3.2. Skills assessments are improving, but gaps in action remain 90

3.3.3. Attracting and retaining digital talent in government remains a persistent challenge 92

3.4. BUILDING IN-HOUSE OR BUYING IN: FINDING THE RIGHT BALANCE 95

Annex 3.A. Additional tables with country data 97

REFERENCES 101

4. Adopting and governing AI in government 106

4.1. INTRODUCTION 107

4.2. GOVERNMENT AI MATURITY HAS IMPROVED IN MOST OECD COUNTRIES 108

4.3. AI USE IN GOVERNMENT HAS GROWN BUT REMAINS LIMITED IN SOME POLICY AREAS 109

4.4. ENABLERS FOR AI ADOPTION IN GOVERNMENT ARE MATURING BUT DELIVERY CAPABILITIES REMAIN UNEVEN 111

4.4.1. Strong governance is the cornerstone of successful AI adoption in government 111

4.4.2. Governments take important steps to upskill public servants, with room for growth in using AI for specific purposes 113

4.4.3. Most countries fund AI initiatives, but support for procurement lags 115

4.4.4. Cloud computing capacities for AI are solidifying but other forms of digital infrastructure are less developed 117

4.5. GUARDRAILS ARE EXPANDING BUT ENFORCEABLE CONTROLS REMAIN LIMITED 119

4.5.1. All OECD countries have high-level guardrails to ensure trustworthy AI 119

4.5.2. Implementation of guardrails remains limited, especially for enforceable controls 120

4.5.3. Most countries commit to algorithmic transparency but few have formal standards or open algorithm registers 122

4.5.4. Limited internal repositories of AI use cases constrain transparency and governance 123

4.5.5. Most countries have oversight or advisory bodies, but activity focuses on guidance rather than enforcement 124

4.5.6. Guardrails for GenAI are less robust compared to other AI systems 125

4.5.7. Challenges in measuring the impact of AI limit decision-making and contribute to a proliferation of pilots with little potential to scale 126

4.6. ENGAGEMENT AROUND STRATEGIES IS STRONG BUT SUSTAINED, USER AND CROSS-BORDER INVOLVEMENT REMAIN LIMITED 127

4.6.1. Governments involve a range of stakeholders in their AI in government strategy development 127

4.6.2. Governments engage beyond national strategies but ongoing user engagement and cross-border collaboration remain limited 128

Annex 4.A. Additional tables with country data 130

REFERENCES 139

NOTES 144

5. Building human-centred and proactive government services in the digital age 146

5.1. INTRODUCTION 148

5.2. SERVICE STANDARDS ARE WIDESPREAD, BUT APPLYING THEM CONSISTENTLY REMAINS A CHALLENGE 149

5.2.1. Service standards as shared principles are widely in place 150

5.2.2. Consistent application of service standards remains the challenge 151

5.3. USER ENGAGEMENT IN SERVICE DESIGN SHOWS PROMISE BUT NEEDS TO BE MORE SYSTEMIC 154

5.3.1. User engagement is progressing but remains uneven and fragile 154

5.3.2. Making engagement repeatable requires shared enablers 155

5.4. RELIABLE SERVICES NEED JOINED-UP DELIVERY ACROSS CHANNELS, INFRASTRUCTURE AND DATA SHARING 156

5.4.1. Joined-up service delivery across channels 156

5.4.2. Digital public infrastructure as a foundation for continuity 159

5.4.3. Data sharing to support joined-up journeys 159

5.5. PROACTIVE SERVICES: REDUCING BURDENS BY ANTICIPATING NEEDS 160

5.5.1. Moving the once-only principle from policy to practice 161

5.5.2. Using data to improve service delivery 163

5.5.3. Using AI to make timely support the default 165

5.6. STRONGER FEEDBACK LOOPS ARE NEEDED TO DRIVE CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT 166

5.6.1. Monitoring is common, but what is being measured matters 166

5.6.2. Measuring what services cost people, not just what they cost government 168

5.6.3. Connecting measurement to decisions 169

Annex 5.A. Additional tables with country data 170

REFERENCES 178

Figures 7

Figure 1.1. The OECD Digital Government Policy Framework 16

Figure 1.2. OECD Digital Government Index results 19

Figure 1.3. OECD countries show stronger performance and progress when setting the strategic direction for digital government,... 20

Figure 1.4. OECD OURdata Index results 21

Figure 2.1. The adoption of DPI systems has grown across OECD countries, particularly in the areas of digital notifications and digital post 40

Figure 2.2. Actors included as service providers by the National Digital Identity Strategy 43

Figure 2.3. Government productivity and efficiency as well as user-driven services are the most prevalent goals underpinning... 47

Figure 2.4. Privacy compliance and security are the most adopted data-management standards across OECD countries 49

Figure 2.5. Adoption of ethical data management principles is on the rise across OECD countries 50

Figure 2.6. Availability of open high-value datasets has improved across OECD countries 51

Figure 2.7. High-value open datasets are more available and equally accessible in 2025 52

Figure 2.8. Eight in ten OECD countries have government-wide data interoperability systems in place 55

Figure 2.9. Interoperability of Italian Public Administration 56

Figure 2.10. Almost six out of ten OECD countries are providing cross-border digital identity, mostly in OECD-EU countries 57

Figure 2.11. Security and resilience are the most prevalent reasons OECD countries are adopting cloud technologies in government 59

Figure 2.12. Initiatives to promote the adoption of use of open-source technologies in government have expanded significantly... 61

Figure 3.1. OECD Digital Government Investments Framework 76

Figure 3.2. Countries have strengthened the decision-making responsibilities of leading digital government institutions 77

Figure 3.3. Most OECD countries have established dedicated funding programmes to support government digital transformation initiatives 80

Figure 3.4. OECD countries are not fully embracing tailored risk-assessment methods for ICT and digital projects 82

Figure 3.5. The majority of OECD countries monitor digital investments, but only half are actively evaluating their impact and results 86

Figure 3.6. OECD Framework for Digital Talent and Skills in the Public Sector 88

Figure 3.7. Only six OECD countries have set dedicated strategies for a strategic direction to boost digital talent and skills in government 89

Figure 3.8. A third of OECD countries still do not assess needs for digital skills 91

Figure 3.9. Initiatives to attract digital talent to the public sector 93

Figure 3.10. OECD countries risk failing to build or retain internal digital capability 94

Figure 4.1. OECD Framework for Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence in Government 108

Figure 4.2. AI use is more widespread in internal processes and public services than in policymaking and accountability 110

Figure 4.3. Most countries designate institutions to implement AI in government strategies 112

Figure 4.4. Most OECD countries provide training on the practical and trustworthy use of AI, with potential to expand its... 115

Figure 4.5. Progress in cloud computing for AI outpaces other digital infrastructure components in OECD countries 118

Figure 4.6. Most OECD countries have yet to translate AI governance frameworks into enforceable controls 121

Figure 4.7. Transparency mechanisms for AI in government remain underdeveloped in OECD countries 123

Figure 4.8. Most OECD countries are providing ethical, procedural and technical guidance for AI in the public sector 124

Figure 4.9. Few OECD countries measure the impact of AI use in government 127

Figure 4.10. Stakeholder engagement in AI in government strategies is strong overall, yet uneven across groups 128

Figure 5.1. Whole-of-government service standards are widespread across OECD countries, primarily targeting service design and... 151

Figure 5.2. While legal requirements to adopt service standards are adopted in most OECD countries, more can be done to embed them... 152

Figure 5.3. Methods to test digital government services are not evenly used across OECD countries 155

Figure 5.4. Only half of OECD countries have a government-wide omni-channel strategy 157

Figure 5.5. Most governments recognise proactive service delivery as an operational goal 161

Figure 5.6. Wide recognition of the "once-only" principle has yet to translate into routine practice 162

Figure 5.7. Governments are better at using data for strategy than for day-to-day service delivery 164

Figure 5.8. Service monitoring is widespread, but meaningful performance measurement remains limited 167

Boxes 9

Box 1.1. Measuring Digital Government: The OECD's Digital Government Index and Open, Useful and Re-usable Data Index 17

Box 1.2. Exploring agentic artificial intelligence (AI) in government 26

Box 2.1. Digital public infrastructure in practice 41

Box 2.2. Key principles for governing digital identity 42

Box 2.3. How OECD countries are governing digital identity 43

Box 2.4. What a truly data-driven public sector looks like 45

Box 2.5. Dedicated public-sector data strategies: Chile and Poland 46

Box 2.6. Making open data accessible: Examples from Czechia and France 51

Box 2.7. Implementing data interoperability in Italy and Japan 55

Box 2.8. The EU's eIDAS 2.0 and the European Digital Identity Wallet 58

Box 2.9. Cross-border collaboration through open-source software 61

Box 2.10. Open-Source Programme Offices in the Netherlands and Czechia 62

Box 3.1. Strengthening central oversight of digital investment 77

Box 3.2. Managing digital investments across their lifecycle: Australia and Switzerland 78

Box 3.3. Making investment planning more flexible and iterative 79

Box 3.4. OECD countries experimenting with more flexible digital investment approaches 80

Box 3.5. OECD countries are strengthening risk assessment to inform investment decisions 83

Box 3.6. Procurement frameworks for digital government 84

Box 3.7. Embedding monitoring tools into digital investment management 87

Box 3.8. Building evaluation mechanisms into digital investment management 87

Box 3.9. Examples of dedicated strategies for digital talent and skills 90

Box 3.10. Connecting skills assessments to action 92

Box 3.11. Initiatives to attract digital talent 93

Box 3.12. Examples of initiatives to retain digital talent 95

Box 3.13. Rebuild internal digital capability 96

Box 4.1. How governments harness AI across policy areas 110

Box 4.2. Examples of institutions governing AI in the public sector 113

Box 4.3. AI in government training efforts for public servants 114

Box 4.4. Funding and procurement support for AI in government 116

Box 4.5. Governments advancing digital infrastructure capacities for AI 118

Box 4.6. OECD countries expanding guardrails for trustworthy AI in government 120

Box 4.7. How governments operationalise algorithmic transparency 122

Box 4.8. Guardrails for generative AI in government 125

Box 5.1. OECD Recommendation on Human-Centred Public Administrative Services 149

Box 5.2. An example of service standard: the United Kingdom 150

Box 5.3. Making service standards work in practice 152

Box 5.4. Making user engagement more consistent and effective 156

Box 5.5. Designing joined-up service journeys across channels 158

Box 5.6. Making the once-only principle operational 163

Box 5.7. Using data to anticipate needs and improve planning 165

Box 5.8. Applying AI to strengthen proactive services 166

Box 5.9. Government-wide efforts to measure user satisfaction with public services across OECD countries 168

Box 5.10. Measuring what services cost people 169

Annex Tables 8

Annex Table 1.A.1. 2025 OECD Digital Government Index composite scores 29

Annex Table 1.A.2. Dimensions of the DGI across four transversal facets 30

Annex Table 1.B.1. 2025 OECD OURdata Index composite scores 31

Annex Table 1.B.2. 2025 OECD OURdata Index sub-pillar scores 32

Annex Table 1.B.3. List of high-value datasets assessed in the OECD OURdata Index 33

Annex Table 2.A.1. Availability of digital public infrastructure 63

Annex Table 2.A.2. Authentication methods for digital identity solutions 64

Annex Table 2.A.3. Actors covered as service providers by the National Digital Identity Strategy 66

Annex Table 2.A.4. Data management standards or guidelines for public servants 67

Annex Table 3.A.1. Decision-making responsibilities of digital government leading institutions 97

Annex Table 3.A.2. Procurement mechanisms used in digital government 98

Annex Table 3.A.3. Initiatives to attract digital talent to the public sector 99

Annex Table 4.A.1. Use of AI in the public sector, by function 130

Annex Table 4.A.2. Existence of training programmes supporting AI skills 131

Annex Table 4.A.3. Digital infrastructure and components used to support AI integration 132

Annex Table 4.A.4. Internal controls in place to ensure trustworthy AI 134

Annex Table 4.A.5. Countries' oversight and advisory bodies for AI in government 135

Annex Table 4.A.6. Countries measuring the financial or non-financial impact of AI in government 136

Annex Table 4.A.7. External engagement in developing the AI in government strategy 137

Annex Table 5.A.1. Availability of service standards (*) and selected associated goals, 2025 170

Annex Table 5.A.2. Countries reporting support mechanisms for application of service standards, by type 171

Annex Table 5.A.3. Countries using methods to test digital government services 172

Annex Table 5.A.4. Government-wide initiatives to use data to anticipate and plan interventions 174

Annex Table 5.A.5. Government-wide use of data to design and deliver public services 175

Annex Table 5.A.6. Measurement of service performance and transaction costs 176

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